Film Sense Shot Essay Example for Free

Film Sense Shot Essay The development of formalist film theory was deeply connected with the formation of cinematograph as the autonomous art. The specific character of this theory, hence, should be understood in terms of theoretical and practical elaboration of film production instruments and thorny path of mastering various means for delivering cinematographic ideas and content to spectators. It should be noted that the basic elements of formalist film theory, such as montage, lighting, scoring, shooting etc. became generally accepted technical means in cinematograph, which were used irrespectively of theoretical approaches preached by a given director. However, it should be noted, that notwithstanding universal spread of major theoretical and technical findings of formalist theory, it has its own unique historical features, represented by the work of such notable contributors as S. Eisenstein and R. Arnheim. Generally speaking, formalist film theory may be described as the totality of views, which claim the centrality of technical and formal means of film production to maintaining its inherently artistic and cultural nature. Eisenstein, the pioneer of formalist theory, in his major works Film Form and Film Sense Shot claimed that montage is the central practice to film-making, because it covers its both technical and artistic aspects (Beyond the Shot, p. 13). The utilization of technical approaches to montage and shooting is essentially linked with general objectives of film production, as it is understood in formalist film theory, that is, creating meanings and artistic ideas through copulation/combination of images, shots and sound elements. Basic features and premises of the formalist film theory Formalist film theory is premised on the dialectical understanding of relations between form and content in film production. Technical means, including montage, shooting, lighting, sound are not neutral vis-a-vis artistic content of a given film. In contrast, their collision or sequence, help realize artistic ideas. Based on this theoretical underpinnings Eisenstein developed several approaches to montage, which should be utilized depending on specific goals director pursues. Eisenstein defines five basic approaches to montage such as metric, rhythmic, tonal, overtonal and intellectual (Eisenstein 1949 72-79). All these approaches are premised on the complexity of artistic ideas, which director delivers to spectators. The dialectical relations between shots in these types of montage are based on conflicts between volume, rhythm, scale, speed etc. Metric montage may be described as the control of time sequence of different episodes and images, irrespectively of their intellectual content. These include various formal transitions and interruptions in the visual sequence of shots. Rhythmic montage includes metric elements, but pays specific attention to the visual composition and content of shots, which is made to deliver complex meaning. One of the notable examples of this type of montage, developed by Eisenstein and practiced by his colleagues such L. Kuleshov and D. Vertov, is a famous scene from Eisenstein’s masterpiece Battleship Potemkin, often referred to as ‘Odessa Steps’. This scene portrays the massacre of protesters (including women and children) in Odessa by Imperial Cossack Forces. Metric and rhythmic approaches to montage are extensively used to portray the ugliness and brutality of Tsarist regime and its servants and the sufferings of ordinary people. To achieve this effect, Eisenstein ‘copulates’ shots of soldiers’ boots, marching down the steps with shots of baby carriage with a child in it, moving downstairs. Besides this, Eisenstein uses close images of people, who were killed and massive flight, caused by the gunfire. Temporal metric transitions, hence, are copulated with rhythmic elements, delivering emotional content (Eisenstein 1925). Tonal montage ranks the next stage in complexity of emotional appeal. It uses entire image to create certain emotional effects in spectator. Using specific lighting, sound techniques or special effects, a director creates certain aesthetic atmosphere, which communicates new artistic meanings to visual dimension of the episode. The next type of montage, which Eisenstein calls overtonal, represents combination of tonal, metric and rhythmic elements to produce complex psychological impact on the viewers. The characteristic features of each type of the montage are used in complex to capitalize on the volume, rhythm, scale and speed. And, finally, the most complex type of montage is intellectual montage, which does not only affect feelings, but imbues thinking and reflection. Objectives of formalist film theory Hence, the main objective of formalist film theory, as Eisenstein constantly repeats, is creating artistic effects and meanings, which are communicated to spectators. Eisenstein vividly showed this opportunity, provided by montage, referring to Japanese hieroglyphs, which create new meanings by adding new elements to already existing (Eisenstein, Beyond the Shot 14). Formalist theory’s basic objective may be described as creating conditions for artistic representation of reality in film production. According to Eisenstein and Arnheim, using technical means is not neutral vis-a-vis objective representation of reality. Inability to master technical means results in negative implications for films artistic content and precludes ‘intellectual’ perception of reality. Therefore, formalist film theory, seeks to overcome mere reproduction of reality, peculiar to commercial movie projects. Besides this, representatives of formalist theory hold that spectators should be influenced emotionally and intellectually in order to give them proper understanding of director’s ideas and subjective goals. This goal has its real historical reasons, because the formalist theory developed within a tradition of revolutionary propaganda films, such as Battleship Potemkin and Alexander Nevsky by S. Eisenstein. Arnheim, who is another important representative of the formalist film theory, showed that representation of reality peculiar to cinema, essentially differs from physical contours of reality. Hence, according to Arnheim, formal elements of film-making have great significance for creating emotional and intellectual effects (Arnheim 323). Arnheim gives vivid examples of unique modes of reality perception, generated by films. As he states, film images can not be reduced to physical dimensions. Neither a position of shooting, nor its objects can not be defined mathematically, because they are premised on artistic taste and understanding of reality. Moreover, as Arnheim states, film and visual realities significantly differ in depth, as films are neither absolutely two-dimensional, nor three-dimensional, but something in between(Arnheim 324) For instance, in Ruttmann’s film Berlin, the director creates interesting juxtaposition of two physical dimensions, depicting trains moving in the opposite directions (Arnheim 324). Tensions and Contradictions within Formalist Film Theory Notwithstanding positive elements, inherent in the formalist film theory, it has certain contradictions and inner tensions, which are often mentioned by the representatives of opposing film theories. For instance, Andre Bazin, one of the most prominent representatives of realist film theory, claimed that formalist understanding of form and technique of film production is manipulative and precludes genuine communication between spectators and artistic subjects (Bazin 48). Besides this, it should be noted that heavy emphasis of formalist film theory on formal and technical means prevents directors from focusing on objective cognition of reality and its representation, making it (reality) a hostage of subjective manipulation with it. However formalist film theory claims that it provides the tools for objective representation of reality, in fact, it is one of the most subjective approaches, even more subjective than auteurship film theory. According to Bazin, formalist film theory breaks world into many small separate pieces, which are then linked to produce structured, but subjective worldview (Bazin 48). Advantages of formalist film theory and its relation to other film theories Formalist film theory has its unique advantages, which are proved by the widespread utilization of its theoretical findings and innovations by film currents, which theoretically contradict its main premises. The importance of montage and other technical procedures was recognized by the majority of directors, who worked after S. Eisenstein. Today, we can not imagine any film, which does not use montage to produce certain artistic affects. Even documentary films, which represent a separate genre, essentially focus on montage. Besides this, deep connections are obvious between formalist film theory and auteur theory, which both put significant emphasis on the role of subjective artistic appeals and aims, which are necessary to maintain cinematograph as a genuine form of art. Both auteur and formalist film theories oppose neutral and quasiobjective film production, which is prone to standardization of techniques and approaches to achieve certain commercial results. In such kind of film production standard genre elements, ideological prejudices and common sense significantly erode the instance of auteurship, transforming films into faceless (without auteur) products of cinema conveyer. It should be noted, however, that formalist film theory is characterized by excessive emphasis on such elements of film production, which often have negative effect on the quality and artistic value. The parasitizing on formal elements and conscious manipulation, as it was noted, is harshly criticized by representatives of realist film theory. It seems that this critique has proper theoretical grounds. Realist film theory, represented by Bazin, calls upon to following the continuity of real images and events and finding artistic meanings in their mere existence. In this view artistic truths should be found in difficult relations between time and space, which entails montage, having subordinate function. Moreover, unlike realist film theory, formalism leaves practically no room for the freedom of interpretation and understanding, aggressively imposing already designed meanings and interpretations on spectators. Such important elements used in realist film theory as deep shot and focus, which help meet its theoretic goals, are ignored in formalist film theory. Failing to master these tools leads to losing visual integrity of reality, which is, according to Bazin, is even more important than montage (Bazin 49). Formalism in Hitchcock’s Spellbound We have already mentioned the use of formalist theory of montage in Eisenstein’s film Battleship Potemkin. However, it should be noted that crucial aspects of formalist film theory may be found in films, directed by people, who are not openly associated with this tradition. This is, for instance, the case with Hitchcock, who based his techniques of film production on Expressionist approach. Hitchcock’s film is based on psychoanalytic and surrealist subjects, which may be proved by its plot and extensive use of Dali’s designs in the Brown’s mysterious dream. One of the major characteristics of Spellbound, which links it with formalist film theory, is that it distorts normal physical perception of time and space in reality. As we remember, Arnheim’s main requirement for film production referred to its creative approach to time and space, designed to break false continuity and present artistic sequence. Hitchcock pays primarily attention to the characterization of different protagonists and objects, but not on their appearances and actions, which is so characteristic of mainstream thrillers. The characters of Constance, false Dr. Edwards, Dr. Murchison are developed in a coherent way, following strict formal structure of plot development. Besides this, Hitchcock utilizes other techniques of formalist film theory, such as fragmentary editing, psychological collision of shots, various lighting effects, and extreme angles. Moreover, Hitchcock uses different approaches to montage, elaborated by Eisenstein. Rhythmic and tonal types of montage are extensively used in scenes, designed to produce strong emotional effects on the spectators. Rhythmic montage is used in the scene depicting Ballantine/Brown/false Edwards phobia of seeing black lines on white things, when these objects are juxtaposed with protagonists’ scared look. Another example includes Constance reading false Edward’s book on the guilt complex and notices that Dr. Edward’s signature differs from that of the man who is the author of the book (real Dr. Edwards). Intellectual type of montage, developed by Eisenstein is evident in surrealist dream scene, when false Dr. Edwards looks at the wall covered with eyes. The same episode includes rhythmic juxtaposition of the close-up shots of Constance and Brown, looking at each other, as well as purely technical tool of shots’ imposition, which creates flexible and vague atmosphere of surrealist dream. Another episode including this type of montage is when Constance, while recollecting Brown’s dream, realizes that the real murderer is Dr. Murchison. In this scene, her recollection of the dream is juxtaposed with her thinking process and eventual discovery. To sum it up, we have analyzed basic characteristics of formalist film theory, its objectives, positive and negative aspects and relation to other film theories. Practical realization of formalist film theory was researched based on the examples of Eisenstein’s Battleship of Potemkin and Hitchcock’s Spellbound. Works Cited Arnheim, Rudolf. Film as Art. University of California Press,1957. Bazin, Andre. What is cinema? Vol. 1 2 (Hugh Gray, Trans. , Ed. ). Berkeley, University of California Press, 1967-71. Eisenstein, Sergei, Film Form: Essays in Film Theory, New York, Hartcourt. Trans. Jay Leyda, 1949. Eisenstein, Sergei. dir. Battleship Potemkin, 1925, USSR. Hitchcock, Alfred. dir. Spellbound. 1945, USA, Vanguard Films. Ð °

Approaches to Flat Slab Design

Approaches to Flat Slab Design Abstract This dissertation aims at the flexure behaviour of reinforced concrete flat slabs in the elastic range and at the ultimate load. As such, it endeavours to give readers a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of slab behaves in flexure. Such a background is essential for a complete and proper understanding of building code requirements and design procedures for flexure behaviour of slabs. The dissertation commences with a general history background and the advantages of using flat slab as the type of floor construction. After that, an introduction of various slabs analysis method as well as the determination of the distribution of moments using elastic theory will be discussed. The building code based methods like ACI direct design method, Simplified coefficient method for BS8110 and EC2 and Equivalent frame method will be explained in details. After that follows a detailed of limit procedures for the ultimate analysis and design of flat slab using general lower bound theory for strip method and upper bound theory for yield line analysis. Besides, the fundamental of the finite element method will be discussed as well. Then, analysis will be carried out on a typical flat slab panel base on each design approach available such as yield line method, simplified coefficient method, direct design method, finite element method as well as Hillerborg strip method. The flexure resistant obtained from the analysis result will then be compared among each others and highlighting the possible pros and cons of the different analysis. Eventually, the analysis results will then be discussed in order to conclude a rational approach to flat slab design and further recommendation will be given to the future improvement of this research. 1. Introduction Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world compare to steel as concrete is well known as the most versatile and durable construction materials. In fact, concrete is also one of the most consumed substances on Earth after water [1]. Concrete has played a major role in the shaping of our civilization since 7,000 BC, and it can be seen everywhere in our built environment, being used in hospitals, residential buildings, schools, offices, industrial buildings and others [2]. Nowadays, construction should not just be about achieving the cheapest building possible, but providing best value for the client. The best value may be about costs, but also includes speed of construction, robustness, durability, sustainability, spacious environment, etc. In fact, many type of concrete floor construction can easily fulfilled the above requirements. In the past, forming the concrete floor construction into shape was potentially the most costly and labour intensive part of the process. Nowadays, with the help of modern high efficiency modular formwork has speed up the concrete floor construction process. Alternatively, floor slab elements may be factory precast, requiring only assembly, or stitching together with in-situ elements. The result is an economic and swift process, capable of excellent quality and finishes to suit the buildings needs. 1.1 Types of concrete slab construction Concrete slab floor is one of the key structural elements of any building. Concrete floor choice and design can have a surprisingly influential role in the performance of the final structure of the building, and importantly will also influence people using the building. In general, cost alone should not dictate slab floor choice in the construction. However, many issues should be considered when choosing the optimum structural solution and slab floor type that give best value for the construction and operational stages. The optimum slab floor option should inherit benefits such as fabric energy storage, fire resistance and sound insulation between floors and others as achieving these requirements will eventually help the concrete building to lower the operation costs and maintenance requirement in long term. In general, reinforced concrete slab floors can be divided into three categories as detailed below: Flat slab Flat slab is also referred to as beamless slab or flat plate. The slab systems are a subset of two-way slab family, meaning that the system transfer the load path and deforms in two directions. It is an extremely simple structure in concept and construction, consisting of a slab of uniform thickness supported directly by the columns with no intermediate beams, as shown in Figure 1.1. The choice of flat slab as building floor system is usually a matter of the magnitude of the design loading and of the spans. The capacity of the slab is usually restricted by the strength in punching shear at the sections around the columns. Generally, column capitals and drop panels will be used within the flat slab system to avoid shear failure at the column section when larger loads and span are present, as shown in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.1: Solid flat slab Figure 1.2: Solid flat slab with drop panel Flat slab is a highly versatile element widely used in construction due to its capability of providing minimum depth, fast construction and allowing a flexible column grid system. Slabs supported on beams One-way spanning slabs are generally rectangular slabs supported by two beams at the opposite edges and the loads are transferring in one direction only. Figure 1.3 shows the type of one-way slabs. Deep beam and slab Band beam and slab Figure 1.3: Type of one-way slabs However, slab supported on beams on all sides of each panel are generally termed two-way slabs, and a typical floor is shown in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4: Two-way slab The beams supporting the slabs can generally be wide and flat or narrow and deep beam, depending on the structures requirements. Beams supporting the slabs in one or two way spanning slabs tend to span between columns or walls and can be simply supported or continuous. In this beam-slabs system, it is quite easy to visualize the path from the load point to column as being transferred from slab to beam to column, and from this visualization then to compute realistic moments and shears for design of all members. This form of construction is commonly used for irregular grids and long spans, where flat slabs are unsuitable. It is also good for transferring columns, walls or heavy point loads to columns or walls below. This method is time consuming during the construction stage as formwork tends to be labour intensive [3]. Ribbed and Coffered slabs Ribbed slabs are made up of wide band or deep beams running between columns with equal depth narrow ribs spanning the orthogonal direction. Loads are transferring in one direction and a thin topping slab completes the system, see Figure 1.5. Ribbed with deep beam Ribbed with wide beam Figure 1.5: Types of ribbed slabs Coffered slab may be visualized as a set of crossing joists, set at small spacing relative to the span, which support a thin slab on top. The recesses in the slab usually cast using either removable or expendable forms in order to reduce the weight of the slab and allow the use of a large effective depth without associated with slab self weight. The large depth also helps to stiffer the structure. Coffered slabs are generally used in situations demanding spans larger than perhaps about 10m. Coffered slabs may be designed as either flat slabs or two-way slabs, depending on just which recesses are omitted to give larger solid areas. Figure 1.6 shows the types of waffle slabs. Coffered slab with wide beam Coffered slab without beam Figure 1.6: Type of coffered slabs Ribbed and coffered slabs construction method provides a lighter and stiffer slab, reducing the extent of foundations. They provide a very good form where slab vibration is an issue, such as electronic laboratories and hospitals. On the other hand, ribbed and coffered slabs are very consuming during the construction stage as formwork tends to be labour intensive [3]. 1.2 Flat slab design as the choice of research The choice of type of slab for a particular floor depends on many factors. Cost of construction is one of the important considerations, but this is a qualitative argument until specific cases are discussed. The design loads, serviceability requirements, required spans, and strength requirement are all important. Recently, solid flat slab is getting popular in the construction industry in Europe and UK due to the advantages as below: Faster construction Construction of flat slabs is one of the quickest methods among the other type of floors in construction. The advantages of using flat slab construction are becoming increasingly recognised. Flat slabs without drops (thickened areas of slab around the columns to resist punching shear) can be built faster because formwork is simplified and minimised, and rapid turn-around can be achieved using a combination of early striking and flying systems. The overall speed of construction will then be limited by the rate at which vertical elements can be cast [4]. Reduced services and cladding costs Flat slab construction places no restrictions on the positioning of horizontal services (eg. mechanical and electrical services which mostly running across the ceiling) and partitions and can minimise floor-to-floor heights when there is no requirement for a deep false ceiling. In other words, this helps to lower building height as well as reduced cladding costs and prefabricated services [4]. Flexibility for the occupier Flat slab construction offers considerable flexibility to the occupier who can easily alter internal layouts to accommodate changes in the use of the structure. This flexibility results from the use of a square or near-square grid and the absence of beams, downstands or drops that complicate the routing of services and location of partitions [4]. Undoubtedly, flat slab construction method is getting popular but there are still many different views about what constitutes the best way of reinforcing concrete in order to get the most economic construction. In addition, a range of methods is available for designing the flat slab and analysing them in flexure at ultimate state. Different analysis and design methods can easily result in variety of different reinforcement arrangements within a single slab, with consequent of making the different assumptions in each analysis and design method. Therefore, this research project will concentrate in examining the various analysis methods for the design of flexural reinforcement of reinforce flat slabs in terms of the code provisions, yield line analysis as well as finite element analysis method. 1.3 Research objectives Reinforced concrete slabs are among the most common structural elements, but despite the large number of slabs designed and built, the details of elastic and plastic behaviour of slabs are not always appreciated or properly taken into account especially for flat slab system. This happens at least partially because of the complexities of mathematic when dealing with elastic plate equations, especially for support conditions which realistically approximate those in multi-panel building floor slabs. Because the theoretical analysis of slabs or plates is much less widely known and practiced than is the analysis of elements such as beams, the provisions in building codes generally provide both design criteria and methods of analysis for slabs, whereas only criteria are provided for most other elements. For example, Chapter 13 of the 1995 edition of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, one of the most widely used Codes for concrete design, is devoted largely to the determination of moments in slab structure. Once moments, shear, and torques are found, sections are proportioned to resist them using the criteria specified in other sections of the same code [5]. The purpose of this research project is to examine the analysis methods such as Hillerborgs strip, yield line analysis, equivalent frame method, finite element method and etc. particularly for the design flexural reinforcement of reinforced flat slabs, and meanwhile to gain full understanding of the theories. The different analysis methods will then be analysed and compared with the flexural capacity method calculated using general codes of ACI 318 [5], Eurocode 2 [6] and BS8110 [7]. The outcomes of the comparison will lead to highlight the pros and cons of different approaches and codes paving the way to find out a rational approach for the flat slab design in flexure. The main objectives of the proposed research are: To examine the different methods and codes use to handle the flexural capacity of the slab. To outlined the different positive and negative aspect in a specific code or method of design To gain full understanding of the flexural design theories and code requirements. To highlight the most economical design solution to overcome the flexure in a flat slab while maintaining the safety as code requirements. 1.4 Research dissertation methodology The following will be the proposed methodology of the research dissertation: Background of flat slab in construction industry Research of the evolution of flat slabs in the past decades and the major contributions made for the construction industry. Difficulties faced during the flexure design of flat slabs in the past and the possible solution for the problems will be discussed. This part of research process result in closer to the background history and the revolution of flat slab in construction. Overview of flat slab design methods Examine each design approaches used to design for flexure in flat slab such as yield line analysis, Hillerborgs strip method, the simplified coefficient method for BS8110 or Eurocode 2 and direct design method for ACI. An insight into different methods and codes will help to establish and revise the general code provisions and also gain the full understanding of theory and design of flat slab. Analysis of flat slab with different approaches Different analysis and design approaches for flexural reinforcement of RC flat slabs will be performed based on the same model slab. For instance, finite element computer software packages will be used to perform the finite element analysis. This part will eventually provide a deep understanding of various design methods as well as the ability to use finite element software in analysis and design. Research the flexural pros and cons in a flat slab among each design methods to get the rational design approach. Discussion The numerical analysis results obtain from different design methods and the codes will be discussed and compare among each others and also to the experimental results obtain in the previous research papers such as Engineering journals and other relevant engineering sources. This process will ultimately lead to a proper and systematic comparison of the codes and methods used, and highlighting their pros and cons. Conclusion This part will conclude the discussion on advantages and disadvantages of all the examined design methods trying to establish which design method may result in a more economic and rational solution. Furthermore recommendations if required and the possible future areas of research will be brought up. 1.5 Dissertation layout Chapter 2 Overview of Design This section will cover the brief of the evolution of flat slabs history. Brief introduction to the current codes for flat slab design such as American Concrete Institute ACI-318, British Standard BS8110 and Eurocode 2. In addition, the fundamental of analysis and flexure strength requirement of each code will be briefly described. Brief introduction to design methods and history of yield line analysis, Hillerborgs strip method and finite element analysis in the slab flexure design. Chapter 3, Analysis Introduction of the analysis process and assumption made for each analysis methods. Focusing on different numerical aspects of the design under different codes and approaches. This section will provide deep understanding of various design methods and how the methods deal with the flat slab flexure problem. Chapter 4, Discussion Comparison between different code equations and theories. Various numerical result from different approaches will be compared and discussed based on the experimental results from past research papers. Pros and cons of different methods for design codes (eg. ACI, EC2 and BS8110), Hillerborg strip method, yield line analysis Graphs and tables will be available to show the summary of the results from different methods. Chapter 5, Conclusion Summarise the economic and rational flexural design approach for flat slab Further recommendations 2. Overview of Design Method The aim of chapter 2 is to provide an overview of the current practice of the design of reinforced concrete flat slab systems. General code of practice of ACI 318, EC2 and BS 8110 requirements are presented, along with the brief of the ACI direct design method, EC2/BS8110 simplified coefficient method, equivalent frame method, yield line, Hillerborgs strip method as well as finite element method. Each procedure and the limitations are discussed within. The following discussion is limited to flat slab systems. That is, the design methodologies presented below relate only to slabs of constant thickness without drop panels, column capitals, or edge beams. In addition, prestressed concrete is not considered. 2.1 Approaches to the analysis and design of flat slab There are a number of possible approaches to the analysis and design of reinforced concrete flat slab systems. The various approaches available are elastic theory, plastic analysis theory, and modifications to elastic theory and plastic analysis theory as in the codes (eg. ACI Code [5]). All these methods can be used to analyse the flat slab system to determine either the stresses in the slabs and the supporting system or load-carrying capacity. Alternatively, these methods can be used to determine the distribution of moments to allow the reinforcing steel and concrete sections to be designed. 2.1.1 Elastic theory analysis Conventional elastic theory analysis applies to isotropic slabs that are sufficiently thin for shear deformations to be insignificant and sufficiently thick for in-plane forces to be unimportant. The majority floor slabs fall into the range in which conventional elastic theory is applicable. The distribution moments forces found by elastic theory is such that: Satisfied the equilibrium conditions at every point in the slab Compliance with the boundary conditions Stress is proportional to strain; also, bending moments are proportional to curvature The governing equation is a fourth-order partial differential equation in terms of the slab deflection of the slab at general point on the slab, the loading on the slab, and the flexural rigidity of the slab section. This equation is complicated to solve in many realistic cases, when considering the effects of deformations of the supporting system. However, numerous analytical techniques have been developed to obtain the solution. In particular, the use of finite difference or finite element (FE) methods enables elastic theory solutions to be obtained for slab systems with any loading or boundary conditions [8]. Nowadays, with the advancement of computer technology software, designer can easily obtained the bending and torsional moments and shear forces throughout the slab easily with any finite element software packages such as ANSYS, LUSAS, STAAD PRO, SAP2000 and others. 2.1.2 Plastic analysis The plasticity, redistribution of moments and shears away from elastic theory distribution can occur before the ultimate load is reached. This redistribution occur because for typical reinforced concrete section there is little change in moment with curvature once tension steel has reached the yield strength. Therefore, when the most highly stressed sections of slab reach the yield moment they tend to maintain a moment capacity that is close to the flexural strength with further increase in curvature, while yielding of the slab reinforcement spreads to other section of the slab with further increase in load. To determine the load carrying capacity of rigid-plastic members, two principles are used as below: Lower Bound Theorem states that if for any load a stress distribution can be found which both satisfies all equilibrium conditions and nowhere violates yield conditions, then the load cannot cause collapse. The most commonly used approach is Hillerborgs Strip method [9]. Upper Bound Theorem states that if a load is found which corresponds to any assumed collapse mechanism, then the load must be equal to or greater than the true collapse. Finding a load which may be greater than the collapse load may be considered to be an unsafe method; however, because of membrane action in the slab and the strain hardening of the reinforcement after yielding, the actual collapse load tends to be much higher. The commonly used approach of this method is yield line theory [9]. 2.2 Early History and Design Philosophies Credit for inventing the flat slab system is given to C.A.P. Turner for a system describe in the Engineering News in October 1905. However, the first practical flat slabs structure, Johnson-Bovey Building was built in 1906 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by C.A.P. Turner. It was a completely new form of construction, and in addition there was no acceptable method of analysis available at that time. The structure was built at Turners risk and load-tested before hand in to the owner. The structure met its load test requirements hence the flat slab system was an instant commercial success and many were built in the United States later on [10]. Robert Maillart was also one of the founding fathers of flat slab from Europe, a design-and-built contractor who was perhaps better known for his work on the design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge. In 1908 Malliart carried out a series of full-scale tests on his flat slab system, see Figure 2.1. About the same time, Arthur Lord, a research fellow at the University of Illinois, also became interested in understanding how flat slabs behaved. In 1911, Lord obtained approval to instrument and test load a seven-storey flat slab building in Chicago. The view and work by them paves the way for the development of flat slabs. Their work evolved into a codified method of design and in 1930 became the London Building Act [11]. Then, Robert Malliarts dimensioning method is reviewed and compared with methods of elastic plate theory and plastic analysis. When compared the results with as elastic analysis, Malliart method considerably underestimate the bending moments acting for the flat slabs. However, the comparison made on limit analysis procedures, Malliarts design is still within the reasonable safety margins [12]. Figure 2.1: First test on flat slabs carried out in 1908 at Maillart Co. works in Zurich [11] In 1878, Grashoff have tried to use polynomial approximation deflection function to work out the flat slab design but was unsuccessful to satisfy certain boundary conditions. At that time, concrete flat slab was emerged in the use as boiler cover plates for steam engines. Due to this problem, in 1872, Lavoinne was forced to work out the flat slab using the Fourier series. Lavoinne assumed a uniformely load is loaded on an infinite large plate and the plate is under simply supported conditions. In this assumption, Lavoinne neglected the poissons effect but Grashoff did consider [12]. Maillart was aware of Grashoffs approach but he thought that it was useless for his purpose because it was restricted to uniformly distributed loads and did not account for the stiffening effect of columns. Based on simple equilibrium considerations, Nicholas managed to prove that all these systems resulted insufficient reinforcement [12]. In the year of 1921, Westergaard and Slater managed to develop a new flat slab theory by comparing the theory results to the available experimental results at that time. In the theory, the stiffening effects due to the presence of columns under different load condition were discussed. Marcus had considered this theory later on by applying finite differences approach; Marcus assumed few different boundary conditions and loads. During the past, due to the absence of a proper theory for flat slab design in Germany hence flat slab construction was almost impossible to be carried out. After sometime later, requirements for the flat slab design theory were established. This theory again mentioned that the design moment must follow Lewes theory (1920, 1922) or theory developed by Marcus (1924). [12]. 2.2.1 Robert Maillarts Contribution In 1902, Maillart has successfully developed dimensioning procedure to design a flat slab. This method was used and succeeds in building few numbers of large flat slabs structure. Due to the absence of strict construction rules in Switzerland, Maillart managed to design flat slab by considering the principle of superposition and successfully performed several arbitrary loads testing on flat slabs. Maillart derived the flexure moments at intermediate points by multiplying the flexural stiffness of the slab with the respective curvatures. The curvatures were derived using the double differentiation of the eight-order polynomial functions meanwhile the flexural stiffness of the slab was analysed using simple one way flexure test on respective slab strips [12]. Maillarts reinforcement pattern for flat slab was very close to the current design approaches. Maillarts method required to reinforce the slab in only two directions. However, C.A.P. Turner insisted to reinforce the slab in four directions (see section 2.2.2 for details). Maillart dimensioning procedure emphasised in designing for positive moments at three different locations labeled as O, Q, and C in Figure 2.2 (where O at the midspan, Q at the quarter point of transverse span l2, and C in the column axis). Negative moments were not checked in Maillart dimensioning procedure and all the bottom bars were simply bent up in the columns strips. In this method, the span ratios, size of column capital and the minimum height of the column capital were restricted to certain values, limiting the nominal shear stress at the circumference of the column to a permissible value [12]. Figure 2.2: Robert Maillarts system and notation for plan view [12] Later, Maillarts results were found underestimated with elastic analysis method. In addition, Maillarts method predicts a reduction in average moment value corresponding to span ratio while elastic plate theory remaining constant. Maillarts method underestimated elastic moments especially for a very large slab structure. In other words, Maillarts dimensioning method has significant differences with elastic analysis procedure in the flexure result of slab [12]. Since Maillarts dimensioning method ignored the negative moments hence this worries the designer when came to the safety of the slab design. In conclusion, Maillart underestimated the moments compared to the elastic analysis on the other hand similar approach to the limit analysis [12]. 2.2.2 C.A.P. Turners Concept Turner never published complete details of his design methods in order to maintain a competitive advantage in the design industry. However, some insights of Turners conceptual design of his flat slabs are available in his patent applications (C.A.P. Turner, Steel Skeleton and Concrete Construction and Elasticity, structure and strength of materials used in engineering.) [10]. In fact, Turners principle design was more concerned about shear in flat slabs as stated by him, Beside the unreliability of concrete in tension, it is unreliable in shear in its partially cured condition. This renders desirable use of reinforcement near the columns or supports to take care of shear [10]. In Turners principle, a so called Mushroom heads or cantilever caps were designed to provide shear resistance in flat slabs. As quoted by Turner, heads may be constructed in accordance with the shearing strain. The diameter of cantilever head was about one-half of the span length. Turner presumed the reinforcement cage acted as part of cantilever support to the slab [10]. Figure 2.3 is an example of the cantilever support mentioned by Turner. Figure 2.3: C.A.P. Turner, mushroom or cantilever shear head [10] Besides shear, Turner also focused on moments and used a four way reinforcement which also known as reinforcement belts, see Figure 2.4. These belts have the same width as that of the cantilever shear head. Turner believed that the positive moments were small due to the cantilever support which is stated as, Referring to flat central plate, or the suspended slab portion, there is practically no bending moment at the center [10]. Figure 2.4: C.A.P. Turners four belt floor reinforcement system [10] Also, Turner believed reinforced the slab in four directions (four belt floor reinforcement system) would provide the moment resistance to counter the negative moments at supports. With these conceptions, Turner considered a very small total design moment to proportion the flexural steel in the four belts. Turner simplified the equation as following: (1) where, W = total dead and live load in one bay L = nominal dimensions in one bay As = total flexural steel, distributed among the four belts fs = allowable steel stress d = distance to tension reinforcement Turner used the co-efficient of 1/50 for equation (1) above reference to Grashoff (1878) and to Prof. Henry T. Eddy (1899) from University of Minnesota. In fact, Turner decided to use such a small coefficient due to the consideration of shorter effective span between cantilever heads. Moreover Turner also considered the slab spanning continuously instead of simply supported design. Numerous experiments data performed by Turner proved that such a coefficient was sufficient for flexure resistant. Besides, the use of cantilever head lead to the unnecessary of drop panels in Turners concept. Turners design concept has successfully built many buildings and bridges from year 1905 to 1909 [10]. 2.3 Current Methods of Flat Slab Design 2.3.1 American Concrete Institute (ACI) American Concrete Institute (ACI) is one of the oldest codes and widely been used to design for reinforced concrete structures. The code covers a number of methods to design a flat slab system. The design of structural concrete is dictated by Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (ACI 318R-05). The ACI code contains procedure for the design of uniformly loaded reinforced concrete flat slab floors. These methods are direct design techniques and equivalent frame method. All these methods are based on analytical studies of the distribution of moments using elastic theory and strength using yield line theory, the results of tests on

American Changes between 1825-1850 :: essays research papers

In early America between the years of 1825-1850, America was rapidly changing and reforming the way people lived. Societal problems and major discrepancies that had previously been overlooked began to rapidly gain awareness. The main idea of the reforms in the United States at this time was the relatively new sense of Democracy. Reform sought to maximize these benefits in light of Democracy and for this reason came up with many changes in which greater good can be found through freedom, justice, and equality of all people. In addition to extending social and political equality for women and the means to economic affluence for the poor (through education), a number of reforms also extended to various oppressed groups of freedom and justice. Abolitionists in the North sought to emancipate slaves in the cotton-cultivating South through the use of moral suasion as revealed by Patrick Reason’s engraving showing the deprivation of the Negro race in regards to their rights as humans, and later, political freedoms. The penitentiary movement began by Dorothea Dix reformed the nation’s prisons and insane asylums to improve the living conditions and treatment of criminals, paupers, and emotionally disturbed persons. Separate penitentiaries were later instituted for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. Instead of â€Å"confining without distinction the more and less vicious†, where the latter can learn â€Å"little but the ways of the wicked†, their separation will salvage the less vicious through â€Å"religious and moral instruction† and â€Å"render them valuable members of society†. Democratic ideals inspired many reforms from 1825-1850. One such ideal was equality for all people in the United States. Many reformers were especially concerned with those in prison and how they would be treated upon release. Many people, such as those for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents, in 1829, hoped that upon release ex-prisoners would become "valuable members of society," but knew that this would only be possible if they were treated like others.

Oman Essay -- essays research papers

Oman is a small country located in the northeast by the gulf of Oman and southeast by the Arabian Sea, southeast by Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The capitol of this country is Muscat. Oman covers an area of about 119,500 sq mi. Oman borders Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates. The Oman government, from what I have read, is ran by a sultan and seems to be somewhat democratic. The population is overwhelmingly Arab, but significant minorities of Indians, Pakistanis, and East Africans are found in the principal ports. The majority of the population is Ibadhi Muslim; Sunni Muslims form the other major religious group. Arabic is the official language. The Life expectancy on average, is 70.25 years, however females seem to live longer; males: 68.31 years female: 72.29 years (1995 est.). There are about 6 children born to each woman. That just shows how much they value family as well as procreation in itself. The Languages are Arabic (official), English, Baluchi, Urdu, and Indian dialects. (1) One of the most interesting pieces I came across about Oman is how the women are treated. Usually when you think of Middle East women you assume they are oppressed or considered to be uneducated. However the women of Oman play a more active and visible role in society than in most of the Arabian Peninsula, where the role of women is still restricted. They have received encouragement and support from the government, which provides schooling and university education for girls on a par with that for boys, and has decreed that women should be given career opportunities and equal pay. In the capital many women now have jobs, especially with the government. In the countryside women have always played an active role in the agricultural communities. For the most part Oman women are not veiled, although the women of some tribes still wear the burqa or facemask and black cloak, the abaya. After viewing many pictures of the women of this culture the majority of Oman women, however, wear very colorful clothes arranged in loose and flowing layers. They are generally not self-effacing and may be willing to talk to strangers, once the ice has been broken. But they are deeply Muslim and should always be treated with deference and respect. (1) However, the film I chose to watch is called Osama. This film describes the life of women during the Taliban rule. Althoug... ...far as what websites are available. The print media is mainly available in Arabic, and only about 2 Omani papers are in both English and Arabic. Tourist attractions such as hotels, may carry more of a variety of national papers. Overall Oman is a very interesting country. They are progressing more into the future and at the same time not leaving their heritage or culture behind, but instead modernizing it. The sultan of this country has been in reign for over 30 years and has done nothing but allowed his country to progress. The fact that this is one of the few Arabic countries that actually allows women certain rights will hopefully educate other Arabic countries about equalization or steps towards allowing women to be freer. Work Cited: (1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.arab.de/arabinfo/omanhis.htm (2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.omanobserver.com/ (3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.arabji.com/Oman/media.htm (4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Osama, directed by Siddiq Barmak , 2004 (5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   WHO COMPARES HEALTH-CARE SYSTEMS ACROSS THE GLOBE , By: Ashraf, Haroon, Lancet, 00995355, 06/24/2000, Vol. 355, Issue 9222

How Piaget’s Work Influenced Instruction and Curriculum Development Essay

Piaget’s theory of intellectual development states that children go through four stages as they grow and develop. These stages are the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operations stage. In the sensorimotor stage, young children use their senses to explore their world. They look, touch, see, smell, and listen to the things in their surroundings and at the same time, they develop what Piaget refers to as object permanence which means that the child is able to retain an image of what he or she experiences such as round objects and pain. Toothman cites Piaget as saying that this stage is composed of substages which are the schemata stage, assimilation stage, and accommodation stage. ( Toothman, n. d. , n. p. ) In the schemata stage, the child develops a mental structure of the things he or she sees around him or her and tries to see which objects bet fit the mental structure. The child then proceeds to the assimilation stage where a child incorporates new information in the existing schema. For example between one ball and another ball, the child may notice that the other ball makes noise when shook. The child then moves to the accommodation stage where he or she makes adjustments in the schema to fit in the object. In the The next stage is the preoperational stage where young children develop a mental representation of the things they experience. For example, they may mentally symbolize animals as having four legs such that anything that fits this mental representation is considered by the child to be an animal. This stage is also accompanied by the use of language. After the preoperational stage, the child goes through the concrete operational stage. According to Hermann, ( Hermann, 1964, p. 250) the child is able to perform mental operations such as classifying objects and arranging them in a particular order. In the last stage which is the formal operations stage, young children learn to think in an abstract manner, reason in a hypothetic manner, and think about thinking. Cherry cites Piaget as saying that the role of deductive logic is very important at this stage where the child determines outcomes for given hypothetical situations based on a general principle. (Cherry, n. d. , n. p. ). Cherry further adds that â€Å"children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem. † The work of Jean Piaget has greatly influenced the way schools design their curriculum or program of instruction as well as the way children are taught. Their curriculum of instruction are based on Jean Piaget’s four stages of intellectual development. Teachers as well as school administrators have put great emphasis on manipulatives, language experience, hands-on activities, and discovery oriented instruction. Young children who are in the sensorimotor stage are given plenty of experiences to use their hands and eyes to understand the things around them. For example, in math, young children in this stage are taught how to count using small blocks or understand the different shapes by using toys which teach them how to fit an object into its correct slot or space. In teaching science, teachers do not allow their pupils or students to be mere observers; they are encouraged to touch, feel, smell, hear, and taste. For example, in a lesson about the leaf, young children are not only shown what a leaf is but they are able to experience the leaf by touching or smelling. It is in this manner that children are able to develop a concrete idea of what leaf is. When children reach the preoperational stage, the curriculum and method of instruction changes. Here the teacher helps the young children develop mental images of the things around them by using pictures and words. For instance, the teacher may show the young children a picture of a living organism with four legs and tell them it’s an animal using the word animal. It is here that children are also able to associate words with pictures of objects. In math, teachers do not only teach their pupils how to identify one shape from the other but also associate a word with its respective shape. For instance, the math teacher may show his or her pupils a square and at the same time, say the word square. Adjustments are made in the curriculum and method of instruction as children reach the concrete operational stage. The curriculum and the teacher focuses more on nurturing the abilities of young children to perform mental operations using objects. In the language class, for instance, young children are taught how to arrange the letters of the alphabet in the correct order using blocks. In math, children learn the correct sequence of numbers by having them arrange each flash card containing a number in the correct order. It is also in this stage that children are taught how to solve simple problems using their power of reasoning. The teacher may hold one big ball and one small ball and ask the pupils which ball is big and which is small. In their young minds, the pupils try to see the discrepancy between the sizes of the two balls. In language, young children are able to discover the appropriate initial sound for each letter in the English language. As children enter the formal operations stage, the teacher is already aware that the child is already ready for work that involves abstract thinking. In math for example, children are taught how to solve numeric problems in a step-by-step manner. In science, young children come up with possible answers to problems that might be posed by the teacher and systematically prove their answers through experiments.

There Is Another Sky

Poem: There is another sky by Emily Dickinson There is another sky, Ever serene and fair, And there is another sunshine, Though it be darkness there; Never mind faded forests, Austin, Never mind silent fields — Here is a little forest, Whose leaf is ever green; Here is a brighter garden, Where not a frost has been; In its unfading flowers I hear the bright bee hum: Prithee, my brother, Into my garden come! * Theme: depression, death * Imagery: Visual imagery * Tone: dark * She is inviting people into her â€Å"garden,† perfectly.I think that the poem itself can be interpreted as a forest that is always green since when you write something down it's going to stay that way. However, I think that what Emily really tries to refer to is her soul of warmth and compassion which always wants to offer itself to those who are suffering. I think that this is the true forest that is never withered or cold because it's always there. Even with her dead, one gets a sense that if this type of compassion can exist from a person then at least someone at some point cared.Emily had a very special spirit in my opinion and a searingly powerful inner beauty – almost one that is so full of this inner radiance that it spills out for others as well. And the very act of trying to reach out to another and show him/her how deeply you care is enough to comfort a person and invite them into that warm acreage of soothing. Austin is her brother. It is him she is talking to throughout the whole poem. Prithee means prey thee, so the line is ‘prey thee, my brother, Into my garden come! ‘ She is praying for her brohter to come in to her world of peace and tranquilty rather than stay in his dark one.

Exploited Latin Women

The European conquest of the New World altered the lives of indigenous women. European women did not arrive to the New World only for years after the initial invasions. Indian women were continuously exploited in the form of labor, catering, and sexual gratification. Elite Indian women were able to gain a somewhat privileged position through their liaisons with the European men. As more and more European women began to arrive in the New World, Indian women were confined to the bottom of the ethnic and class hierarchy. â€Å"A particular concern of the colonists was that their â€Å"purity of blood† be preserved, meaning that no black or Indian people could enter into the family lineage. This in return caused careful controlling of women†s behavior. Under the regulation of patria potestad, women remained under the legal authority of their fathers until marriage, when authority was transferred to their husbands.† During the nineteenth century women†s public life was limited. Women also still remained legally minors. There were some advances in education which helped some women to enter into professions. There were also alterations of civic codes which ultimately abolished the patria potestad laws in many countries. Latin American women entered the 20th century with better education and legal status but with still restricted roles. Women initiated campaigns for equal political and civil rights. But despite some gains they continued to be discriminated, shaped by machismo, and poor women faced the double duty of family and employment. â€Å"According to historical records almost 30 percent of households in the city of Sao Paulo in 1765, were headed by women that were single, married whose husbands were absent, or widows. By 1802, this rose to 44 percent, falling to 39 percent by 1836.† This was due to the need of male labor migration in an economy based primarily on plantation agriculture. Taking the average age of female heads it is noticed that the female heads are an average of 7 years older than male heads. Many of the female heads are widows. Female heads earn less income than their male counter parts and on an average have less education than the males. One of the most notable characteristics of today†s poverty in Latin America is the growing number of women among the poor. â€Å"Today about 20 percent of the poorest households in Latin America are headed by women, but in some cities the percentage rises to almost 38 percent. A review of 22 studies of women-headed households in Latin America reveals that there is a strong correlation between female head-ship and poverty, and that such households are increasing in number.† There are many reasons why we are seeing a rise in the number of households headed by women which are in poverty. Women have less access to land, credit and technologies, therefore women farmers have to work longer hours and they have fewer assets and lower incomes than men farmers. Female headed households are likely to be poorer than male-headed households because they have fewer working members of the family, they have lower average wage earnings, less access to jobs and productive resources. Most Latin American women have less education than men. These are some of the key reasons why we are seeing a increase in poor households headed by women. There are more and more women working as wage laborers. † Fruit companies in Chile rely exclusively on women for harvesting, processing, and packing fruit. In Columbia women cultivate and pack flowers. In general they are paid less than men. In Honduras for example women are paid 70 percent of the male wage for performing the same tasks in tobacco cultivation.† It is clear that the women who do participate in the labor force and have the same education level as men are discriminated from men. Discrimination is clearly an important factor. It is not so much that female -headed households have lower incomes because of them having more children or fewer adults, but clearly the head of the household being a female, earns less. Because there are many women who lack education and skills, women in formal sector employment tend to be clustered in jobs that offer little potential for training or advancement. â€Å"In Brazil, Chile, and Peru over 50 percent of economically active women work in the service sector (1988).† Most of the women who do have better paying jobs in the formal sector are self employed. Usually self-employment doesn†t have much growth potential. The problem with women in the workforce doesn†t stop there. In households where there is a male head of the house, a women†s income is still highly depended on. Female income is often a secondary or tertiary source of income. Many rural families rely upon the work of its female members for most of its food. Traditionally the money earned by men is used only for corn and firewood, forcing the wife to develop her own income in order to provide for other family necessities. With less and less land becoming available for cultivation and unable to produce enough corn for the year, the men are forced to find additional income in order to supplement what they can grow. Female economic development has been hampered by the fact that women have found themselves utilizing traditional skills and market connections first established by their mothers and grandmothers. Rarely has a women ventured into learning a new kind of work. â€Å"Complete reliance on traditional skills has limited the economic growth of women.† Women seem to be moving away from the traditional family businesses. Within the last generation the women are going from traditional women†s work to more modern employment. The traditional model is one in which the daughters help their mothers with their family business and in the process learn enough to initiate the same type of business after they marry. The daughter usually starts helping her mother with her business around the age of nine or ten doing small but helpful jobs. By the time the daughter reaches puberty she is a competent and efficient worker. It is at this time that their daughters are a valuable asset. During the daughters teenage years the business is at its peak production. † When the daughter marries at 19 or 20 the mother daughter arrangement ends as the new bride turns her attention to her new home, and then the mother must rely on the younger daughters† to help with the family business. Then the older daughter becomes an asset to her new mother-in-law. The use of family members is very important for their business. Children replace workers that otherwise may need to be hired to run the business. Family members usually are more efficient and the families probably could not bare the financial expense of hired workers. Women in the work force have problems, but they also have problems within their families as well. The female as we have seen is depended on for financial income. At the same time the female has extended responsibilities and concerns at home. Along with working outside the home the female is generally the care taker in raising the children and doing domestic chores around the home. In general the females control the families domestic budget but this seems to be dropping with the rising standard of living of the town. â€Å"Stable marriages are rare, women believe, due to the inevitable failings of men whom they consider to be hopelessly unreliable.† Women of Latin America believe men do their best to live up to their insensitive macho behavior. Men believe they do not need to explain their intemperate behavior. Many Latin American men grow up to expect servitude and obedience from their wives. â€Å"Women are socialized to fulfill their subordinate, long-suffering roles passively, accepting male responsibility, wickedness, and foolishness as their destiny. Thus, women enter into a marital union expecting the worse from their spouses.† â€Å"Expected to succumb to his domination, she is both defenseless and immobilized.† More and more Latin American women with time are acting to protect their own interests. â€Å"More educated women are demanding more equality in marriage through the use of birth control. While they value the maternal role they are understanding the rising costs of having children and want more from the marital relationship than motherhood. They want their husbands to respect and trust them, and to forego extramarital affairs and other forms of abuse.† Today in Rio de Janeiro there are five police stations that exist solely to handle crimes against women. â€Å"While Brazil has advanced from military dictatorship toward democracy violence against women remains endemic. The first national study of the problem, in 1992, reported an average of 337 assaults on women daily.† Feminists in Brazil in 1985 made a serious gain with the establishment of the women†s police stations. Feminists moved for this because they believe male policemen don†t take wife beating seriously. â€Å"They see it as a domestic argument that has nothing to do with them and is certainly not a crime.† On paper, Brazil†s women have made great gains in recent years. The country†s 1988 constitution bans discrimination against women, requires the state to combat violence against them and mandates 120 days of maternity leave. In reality there still remains traditional theories of women†s behavior and much discrimination.