A Separate Peace Essay -- essays research papers

A Separate PeaceDealing with enemies has been a problem since the beginning of time. I never killed anybody, Gene had commented later in his life, And I never developed an intense level of hatred for the enemy. Because my war ended before I ever put on a uniform, I was on supple duty all my time at Devon I killed my enemy there. In A Separate Peace, by John Knowles, the value of traffic with enemies is shown by Gene, who was dealing with few human enemies, but his emotions created far greater rivals than any human could ever posses.One of the enemies that Gene created for himself was jealousy. Gene was jealous of everything about Finny. The openness which Finny feature was one of these things which Gene envied. One incident of Finnys openness was when he wore the pink shirt. By wearing this he was symbolizing the first U.S. bombing in Europe. Gene simply replied to the shirt by calling Finny nuts, but deep down inside Gene was jealous of Finnys boldness. Another incident of Finny s openness, or boldness is when he wore the school tie as a belt. Gene was anxiously waiting for Finny to get yelled at, but because of his openness he was able to talk his way out of getting into trouble. Finny claimed that he wore the tie as a belt because it represented Devon in the War. Again, Gene was envious of Finnys openness to make up a story and get away with everything.Another one of Genes enemies is his anger. Alone, his anger is mild, but when mixed with his je...

The Belbin Exercise :: Business and Management Studies

The Belbin ExerciseIntroductionDuring term 1 of our module I took part in 2 licks and a Belbintest. During the 2 exercises and test I learned many skills and newideas that will aid me in the future.ReportThe scratch element of separate work that we did was the Belbin exercise. This was to ascertain youre most effective radical role. From theresults we were arranged into groups which contained a mixture ofroles. My role was company worker. I neither agreed nor disagreedwith the result as part of me could see the logic behind the resultand part of me saw myself with a position of higher authority. Idont think the focusing the groups were formed made any difference in thefirst exercise. Maybe under different circumstances our differentroles could have become more apparent.From taking part in the two exercises I have learned that planning isvital to any type of work, in particular group work. I think the reasonbehind this is because without planning nothing is done efficiently. I h ave also learned that communication is rattling principal(prenominal) our secondexercise was totally dependant on verbal communication. Although wehad a slow start we eventually started to communicate effectively andsolved the problem very fast.In the first exercise we were in smaller groups, my group containedseven large number, including myself. During this exercise all groupmembers contributed evenly. In the second exercise we worked in amuch larger group, I noticed that some people didnt contribute at alland the bulk of the discussion was coming from the same people. Although this happened the exercise was done swiftly and effectively.Good communication skills were demonstrated during the secondexercise. Group members put their point across in an orderly way andthe other group members listened well and contributed. During thisexercise we didnt necessarily have a strategy but we did operate agood effective system. We had one person that people fed informationto, and that perso n then made notes of the information onto thewhiteboard. Once all the information was gathered we were then ableto come to a conclusion. My group also showed good communication skills in the first exercise. We had to come up with a group opinion of which person deserved theuse of the available kidney machine. The way we came to our decisionwas to firstly decide a priority order individually, then by using a

Love and Death in The Epic of Gilgamesh Essay -- Epic Gilgamesh

Love and Death in The heroical of Gilgamesh Abstract The most interesting stories invariably are about love and death. These two themes underlie the epos of Gilgamesh, a mythic tale of the quest for immortality. Gilgamesh, profoundly affected by the death of his friend Enkidu at the hands of the gods, questions the in exclusivelyice of life. Finding no answer, he of course tries to changeindeed, eliminatethe question by seeking immortality. The following essay examines Gilgamesh and Enkidus relationship, and the effect of Enkidus death on Gilgamesh. Gilgameshs unsuccessful person in the end attests the intertwining of love and death in a relationship. Woody Allen once stated, Its not that Im afraid to die. I just dont want to be there when it happens. Even the most stout-hearted soul would admit the truth of that statement. Deathlike lifeis a mystery. It is in any case a test. Acting as an immutable deadline, death forces us to confront its inevitable reality. But not every unriv aled deals with it in the same way. Those who lack the strength to roll in the hay are consigned to a life of unconquerable fear and insecurity and are the stuff of tragedy. Others, however, do succeed in attaining a measure of immortality, though the locomote is long and difficult. These are the culture-makers of society its painters, composers, and poets. Their common link is the warrior spirit, the part of them that struggles, succeeds...and struggles some more. The Epic of Gilgamesh reflects this spirit of the warrior. Although Enkidus death indicates that mortals seemingly are at the benevolence of the gods and death is inevitable, Gilgamesh nonetheless embarks on a quest for godhood Enkidu has to die so Gilgamesh can stand firm. Gilgamesh and Enkidus friendship prefigures G... ...venture onto the stone walls of Uruk. The irony is that the story is about his affliction rather than success. His quest started when he realized he had not established his name stamped on bricks as...destiny decreed (70). He presumably thought his story would be one success after other, victories of strength and fury. How ironic that his tale is of the failure to find immortality, a quest prompted by Enkidus death. But as irony takes another twist, his failure is also a success. Gilgamesh learns, one presumes, that although death inevitably comes, one must attempt to foil its icy grasp. That is why Enkidu must die for Gilgamesh to live his death launches Gilgamesh toward a hopeless task, one that results in a valuable lesson set in stone for all to see. And the stone still stands. ReferenceThe Epic of Gilgamesh. London Penguin Books, 1972.

Power in OConnors The Artificial Nigger and Masons Shiloh Essay

Power in OConnors The Artificial Nigger and Masons Shiloh Flannery OConnors story The Artificial Nigger and Bobbie Ann Masons story Shiloh both deliver characters that excercise power . Mr. Head, the main character that performs power in The Artificial Nigger, is an old racist man, who claims to know everything. In Masons story, Norma Jean, a simple southern woman who wants diversity in her life, is the main character that exercises power. Both characters atomic number 18 similar in their successful exercise of power however, the effects their power have are different. Mr. Heads exercise of power has a negative effect on his grandson, Nelson, while Norma Jeans exercise of power serves as a way to benefit herself. Mr. Heads main focus is to agnize Nelson see black people as niggers and for Nelson to fear the city. Mr. Heads controling nature effects Nelson in a negative manner. From the beginning of the story, Mr. Heads powerful and controling personality is evident when the f abricator states, ...he saw half of the moon five feet away in his shaving mirror, paused as if it were waiting to enter (249). Mr. Heads desire to control alike extends to all aspects of life. His intentions for Nelson are clear when he says, ...but I mean for him to get his fill once and for all (254). By making Nelson feel powerless, Mr. Head steals away his innocence. Before influencing his grandson, Nelsons description of a black man is A man, but later in the story Nelson begins to see black people as niggers, just like his grandfather (255). Fearing the city, also has a negative effect on Nelson. He holds pride in being born in Atlanta, but his grandfather wants to teach Nelson that he had no cause for pride merely because he had been... ...aking classes, she is able to slowly but surely find her independence again. Norma Jean finally tells her husband that she wants to leave him because she does non want to ...feel eighteen again (500). By leaving Leroy and starting a ne w life, Norma Jean is able to forget the pain and embarassment she felt many historic period ago. The power she possesses enables her to succeed in her wish to move on. The characters in both stories have similarities and differences. Mr. Head and Norma Jean use their power to get what they want. Both are similar because they are successful in exercising their power and are different becausse their power has different effects. Mr. Head thrives on control and succeeds in his visualize to control his grandson. Norma Jean works at self-improvemennt so that she can leave her husband and continue to live the life that she has longed for.

Phil Jackson And Buddhism Essay example -- essays research papers fc

Buddhism is a major Asian religion studied and dependable in countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia. Although Buddhism is a growing religion throughout the world, in particular, the practice of meditation is spreading in the West. The United States has a nerve center for Buddhists in Hawaii and New York and also a Buddhist community has been established in California. (Hewitt, 13-14) But even closer to home for most is the practicing of venereal infection Buddhism on the basketball court by former Chicago Bulls and present Los Angeles Lakers coach Phil capital of Mississippi. In this essay I allow for discuss how Jackson has bodied some of the practices of Zen Buddhism into his and the players of his teams lives and how it has been effective for the game and the lives of those involved. I will also touch on his use of combined Zen and Christianity along with his extended pursuit in the Lakota Sioux.The Chicago Bulls Buddha-like guru Phil Jackson inks the r ichest coaching deal in N.B.A. history ($6 million for one last season with the Bulls) (Notebook, 11). There may be some sound reasoning behind this. Michael Jordan was quoted on how some team members are starting to use Jacksons religion to help them win, Its that Zen Buddhism stuff. Were practicing smiling when we may be frustrated inside so we can relieve some tension. Its an art form (Quotables, 1). Jackson speaks in depth to his team about ejecting selfishness and egotism (Eckman, 3). He describes Jordan in the late 80s as a player who tried to overcome the other team by himself (Zen Teamwork). He not nevertheless helped lead Jordan to play like a star but led the Bulls to be a winning team. He and several of his former players believe that this is partially due to what they practiced in the years Jackson was coach. Not only did they study basketball, as writer Frank Deford for Sports Illustrated noted in a cover story on Jackson, they took part in group meditations and prega me nap time (84). Not to reference point poetry and assigned books (83). These things may sound odd but as one of the beliefs of Zen says, Dont get caught up in only one way of doing things and dont look at things from just one point of view. If you try another way, or change your point of view, the results will always be different (Chung, 99). Jackson definitely looks at and coaches basketball from a different point of view then most coach... .... As an solicitude getter to his team before a big game when they are wondering if the meditating and poetry will pay off or if they are just waste their time, Jackson reminds them of his awareness by saying, Its like youre going along at 65 miles an hour, listening to your hip-hop music, and your cell phone is ringing, and youre eating a Big Mac, and you spill ketchup on your shirt. You look down. And when you look back up right ahead of you, its all red lights. Theres just too much going on in your lives (Deford, 84)Works CitedChung, Tsai Chih. Wisdom of the Zen Masters. New York Doubleday, 1998.Deford, Frank. Father Phil. Sports Illustrated 1 Nov. 1999 82-91Eckman, Dr. Jim. Issues in Perspective. 2 April 2000. Grace University Zen and the Art of Teamwork. Fortune 25 Dec 1995Hewitt, Catherine. Buddhism. New York Thomson Learning, 1995.Jackson, Phil, and Hugh Delehanty. Sacred Hoops Spiritual Lessons of a Hardwood Warrior. New York Phil Jackson, 1995.Notebook. Time 4 Aug. 1997 11Quotables. Home page. 26 April 2000.

Phil Jackson And Buddhism Essay example -- essays research papers fc

Buddhism is a major Asian religion studied and practiced in countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia. Although Buddhism is a growing religion passim the world, in particular, the practice of meditation is spreading in the West. The United States has a center for Buddhists in Hawaii and New York and to a fault a Buddhist conjunction has been established in California. (Hewitt, 13-14) But even closer to home for most is the practicing of Zen Buddhism on the basketball court by former Chicago Bulls and give birth Los Angeles Lakers coach Phil Jackson. In this essay I will discuss how Jackson has incorporated some of the practices of Zen Buddhism into his and the players of his groups lives and how it has been effective for the game and the lives of those involved. I will also touch on his use of combined Zen and Christianity along with his extended interest in the Lakota Sioux.The Chicago Bulls Buddha-like guru Phil Jackson inks the richest coaching deal in N.B. A. biography ($6 million for one last season with the Bulls) (Notebook, 11). There may be some sound reasoning behind this. Michael Jordan was quoted on how some team members are starting to use Jacksons religion to help them win, Its that Zen Buddhism stuff. Were practicing smiling when we may be frustrated inside so we can relieve some tension. Its an art form (Quotables, 1). Jackson speaks in depth to his team about ejecting selfishness and egotism (Eckman, 3). He describes Jordan in the late 80s as a player who tried to beat the other team by himself (Zen Teamwork). He not only helped chasten Jordan to play like a star but led the Bulls to be a winning team. He and several of his former players believe that this is partially imputable to what they practiced in the years Jackson was coach. Not only did they study basketball, as writer Frank Deford for Sports Illustrated noted in a cover invoice on Jackson, they took part in group meditations and pregame nap time (84). Not to m ention poetry and assigned books (83). These things may sound odd but as one of the beliefs of Zen says, Dont get caught up in only one way of doing things and dont bet at things from dear one point of view. If you try another way, or change your point of view, the results will always be different (Chung, 99). Jackson definitely looks at and coaches basketball from a different point of view then most coach... .... As an attention getter to his team before a big game when they are question if the meditating and poetry will pay off or if they are just wasting their time, Jackson reminds them of his awareness by saying, Its like youre going away along at 65 miles an hour, listening to your hip-hop music, and your cell phone is ringing, and youre eating a Big Mac, and you spill ketchup on your shirt. You look down. And when you look back up right ahead of you, its all red lights. Theres just too much going on in your lives (Deford, 84)Works CitedChung, Tsai Chih. Wisdom of the Zen M asters. New York Doubleday, 1998.Deford, Frank. Father Phil. Sports Illustrated 1 Nov. 1999 82-91Eckman, Dr. Jim. Issues in Perspective. 2 April 2000. Grace University Zen and the Art of Teamwork. Fortune 25 dec 1995Hewitt, Catherine. Buddhism. New York Thomson Learning, 1995.Jackson, Phil, and Hugh Delehanty. Sacred Hoops Spiritual Lessons of a Hardwood Warrior. New York Phil Jackson, 1995.Notebook. Time 4 Aug. 1997 11Quotables. Home page. 26 April 2000.

Identify the Different Reasons People Communicate Essay

Effective and consistent communication inwardly a climb, as indeed, within most realms of everyday life, is not merely desirable, yet vital. It ensures that the needs of all parties within the organisation may be catered for, according to their unique and individual sets of requirements. For instance, if we were to larn a catch-all philosophy within the setting, it is inevitable that many children would be sidelined and their particular set of needs not fully addressed. It is only through regular and natural assessment and the effective communication of such, that we may arrive at a suitable evaluation and from there, put into motion the best possible course of exertion to meet the needs of children, their parents/ carers and staff most efficiently.Communication is key at every level within the setting. At its most basic, it is quite only if a wight to get the job done in the most efficient and timely manner. Recognising that communication is a varied and far reaching tool wh ich can be done verbally but equally so, non verbally is key. Gestures, facial expressions, body language and tone of voice all convey a story to an other person. Remaining vigilant to the effect your actions may wee on another is vitally important when considering the impact your bad day could have on another. Simply acknowledging those around you in a positive manner, macrocosm affable and approachable, will all make for more pleasant and effective working(a) environment for all involved.see morereasons for communicationThe conveyance of information between staff members, parents and children alike within a setting, is central to the successful discharge of an establishment where the emotional, educational and physical needs of all involved are of paramount importance. Regular feedback to staff members ensures that any concerns can be addressed and the aggroup can work together more effectively. From the very first beginnings when a child walks through the doors for the first time, a message is being communicated.It is vital thusly that a setting ensures that it is communicating the correct messages by establishing good first impressions with those who come into contact with the setting. A smile of acknowledgement is often all that is necessary to put new comers, both young and old, at ease. An open, friendly and professional demeanor will aid in the building of trust between the setting and parents/ carers and children as indeed, with any exterior organisations with which the setting may well need to work alongside, such as social services or perhaps occupational therapists.Regular contact with parents/ carers ensures that school is not a closed book area of their childs life with which they have no involvement. It is indeed crucial to a childs scholastic career to have the support and input from their family members and settings benefit enormously from open and trusting relationships with parents/ carers where information can be shared and used to better suit the childs needs. Regular and well delivered praise and reassurance can only serve to bolster and maintain a childs sense of well being and esteem and establish boundaries without creating negative self image. Really getting to know each child and being able to pick up on what isnt being said is also essential. A childs need to express their emotions is critical to their outgrowth and they must be provided with a safe environment from which to do so.

National Security vs. Civil Liberties Essay

The recent family line eleventh attacks expect caused many Americans to wonder about the personal sacrifices to be made in edict to keep the nation safe and free. With mixed results, it has become a common practice throughout history to restrict personal freedoms in the name of issue security. Many questions arise from this process Where is the line drawn? If liberties are restricted do they ever truly return? If it is true that we are doomed to reverberate history if we fail to learn from it, an examination into the circumstances of the Japanese American internment in 1942 may inform the panaches to most effectively like with the security concerns faced by Americans today.There is a paradox in American theories of democracy and freedom. As the United States has fought abroad in the name of freedom, we lead simultaneously restricted the personal freedoms of people in the country. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt engaged in battle in World War II, it was not only to aveng e against the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor but to bring down the Nazi regime that was murdering people in Europe. At the same time, Roosevelt had most 120,000 Japanese Americans, the majority of whom were American citizens or legal permanent residents, rounded up into internment camps, violating their complaisant rights to be treated with fairness and equality, without discrimination and the fifth Amendment liberty of due process.In 2001, people are quick to dismiss the idea of an internment of American citizens, suggesting that the country has come a long way from 1942. The hypothesis that the government might conduct surveillance or use illegal wiretaps to monitor groups or individuals that it suspects of domestic terrorism seemed foreign before September 11th, and now has become a way to gain more information about potential suspects. These new measures, included in the USA Patriot Act, finely trace the line between national security and civil liberties. A brief look at ho w the Bush administration has extended its powers since September 11th includes the detaining without charge of thousands of Muslim and Arab-American men without release of information to kin nor legal access, a new Bureau of Prisons regulation which allows Justice Department officials to listen in on conversationsbetween suspects and their lawyers and a new legislation, which includes warrant-less searches, roving wiretaps and a redefinition of a domestic terrorist. American society is not yet comfortably distanced from the practices of history that have threatened the civil rights and liberties Americans enjoy. Fred Korematsus speaking engagements continued in 2001, as he warned college students to stay aware of what the government is doing, and to stand prepared to defend their freedoms.In times of crisis, as presidential power expands, domestic policies must take shape to ensure the protection of Americans, from foreign and domestic threats. The Bush administration has a difficu lt task ahead, to keep Americans safe while maintaining the freedom which makes this country great. The delicate issue of interviewing Arab Americans has presented a challenge and continues the debate among Americans about how many of our civil liberties become expendable when the country is at war.

Globalization and Fashion Essay

In the 19th century, countries started trading more, because it was right after the Great depression of the 1930 when mass production became more accessible. The reason for this was the advance in technology. Improvement in technology has made life in many certain extents easier, not only for trading, but for many different aspects of human life. interim technology is getting so advanced that it has a great influence on civilisations. With globalization, on the whole the cultures in the ground are fading a guidance and good-looking their place to one major common culture. Evidence of this can be seen clearly in fashion. From planes to the net, people and their culture are strongly connecting with each other.Tothis interpret people travel from one country to another for various reasons including business, touring and education. Some of business people are the buyers of great fashion departments. They overhear a major influence on bringing different culture from one country t o another. For instance, a trend in Europe transfers to North America from tourist who has traveled to Europe and buyers of department stores who choose the items. On the other hand, buyers are strongly concerned about what is going to sell and what is not. If the garment that they are buying for is for fall in States of America, it must be more practical than something, which they transfer from New York to Europe.The reason behind that is that culture of fashion in America is more practical than the culture of fashion in Europe. In American life style practicality has a strong voice, therefore, it is a better target market for casual wear. People angle to wear more comfortable clothes, such as jeans, sportswear, t-shirts, as well as converse shoes1.A good advertisement on the Internet has a worldwide impact, which can lead to a new trend. Most women in the world are rattling vulnerable to these beautiful new items shown on the Internet advertisement they catch new trends and mi x them up with their own home country fashion. The spread of globalization will bring changes to the countries it reaches, but change is very important part in everyones life. The Internet has proven a big part in projecting traditional culture. Various reports have showed that the world trade in goods with cultural content increased over the years.Magazines are one thing that has always been there and has always been a strong way of communication between cultures. To daytimes world of commercials and advertisements has made a huge diversity in the world of magazines. Magazines such as Vogue have had a major role in changing the fashion world.Vogue was first published in 1910 in Britain, but now there are vogue in Italy, France, Spain, and America2. The strongest and most influential one of all is Americas Vogue People tend to pick up new trends from such sources every day in every single place in the world, but since English is the most spoken language across the globe,American Vog ue sells the most and it mechanically transfers American fashion more around the world.Satellites and TVs are just as influential as magazines. For example, Fashion TV was found in 1997 in France as the first fashion only international network. In later years even in countries in the Middle East, some fashion channels were created and changed the alone countrys fashion. People copy all the new western trends, and try to use them as much as possible even though they have some restrictions in how they are supposed to dress in Muslim countries. For example, all Iranian woman follow the Europeanfashion3. They are labored to cover up their hair but they are still very much fashionable and dress nice.The effects of globalization on culture has excessively been perpetuated through euphony. Music has been termed as one of the strongest culture that has taken over a large number of young people across the globe. The different music genres including gangster rap, hip-hop, RNB, rock, regga e and others plays an important role in creating a global culture.This has been made possible by technology and media including MTV, You Tube as well as other social networks in the internet. More in particular, the hip-hop culture is a wave that has dominated in various countries4. Today, every young man and women want to bloke with a particular hip-hop star and imitate and adore their dressing code, style and even speaking. Hence, a college boy in New York living below the footsteps of Tupac Shakur (A popular hip-hop pioneer) is no different to a peer in China or Africa idolizing the uniform. As a result, these young men share the same fashion mode of wearing jeans, necklaces famous as bling bling, and even earrings as part of their accessories5.Similarly, the fashion trend goes beyond clothing. Globalization has made people in the world adopt a particular fashion of identity. The influence of media also blamed for brainwashing peoples identity. The contemporary woman as depi ct in western movies is slender with long legs. This has influenced several young women to emulate this style to an extent of undergoing cosmetic surgery. Likewise, an ideal man portrayed in the movies emphasizes a well built masculine figure which has also influenced the lifestyles of many young men around the world.There has been concern that globalization is synonymous with Americanization. The western particularly American culture is highly idolized all over the world. The fashion trends in America spreads more quickly and are readily embraced in all countries with music, Hollywood celebrities and even models playing as agents for perpetuating American fashion to the rest of the world. The internet has enabled the transfer of the American culture to the global community.In conclusion, Globalization has a major affect in worlds fashion. Sources such as Internet, telemarketing and advertisements tend to change peoplesperspective about fashion. People pick up trends from such sourc es and sometimes mix them up with their own ideas and cultural restriction. Globalization is sometimes associated with Americanization due to the large adoption of American fashion in intimately all aspects of lifestyles. Globalization has transformed the diversified culture in the world into one single culture, the global culture. Hence, the world has become a global village sharing everything including fashion and culture.BibliographyAnthony Giddens. Runaway World How Globalization is Shaping our World. New York Sage, 2003.Dress Globalization Of Fashion retrieved Dress Globalization Of Fashion accessed May 4, 2010Ian Condry and Shara Rambarran. knock Japan Rap and the Paths of Cultural Globalization. Durham and London Duke University Press, 2006.Kai Hafez, Alex Skinner. The Myth of Media Globalizations. New York Polity, 2007.Kolawole A. Owolabi. Globalization, Americanization and Western Imperialism. Journal of Social Development in Africa. 16, No. 2 (2001) 71-92.

The Silver Linings Playbook Chapter 33

Letter 4-November 29, 2006Dear Pat,Tiffany informs me you atomic number 18 sincere, and from what she has told me about your new personality, it seems as though you are a completely transformed man. Whether this is the result of the accident, therapy, medication, or simply sheer willpower, you are to be congratulated, because this is no small feat.First allow me to say I recommended Huck Finn for your ingesting enjoyment only. I was not trying to send you a hidden message. Based on everything you leave written and what Tiffany has told me maybe you should read The Catcher in the Rye. Its about a young boy named Holden who has a hard time coping with reality. Holden deficiencys to live in a childhood ground for the rest of his life, which makes him a very beautiful and interesting character, but one who has trouble finding his place in the real world. At present, it seems as though you are having a hard time dealing with reality. Part of me thrills at the changes you have made, because your letters really do present a better man. tho I also worry that this worldview you have developed is fragile, and may be what kept you in the neural health facility for so many geezerhood and is keeping you in your parents basement for so many months. At some point you are going to have to leave the basement, Pat. You are going to have to get a job and earn money again, and then you might not be able to be the person you have been for the last few months.Of course I remember Massachusetts. We were so young, and the memory is beautiful. Ill carry it with me forever. But we WERE CHILDREN, Pat. That was more than a decade ago. Im not the type of woman who would sleep in an economy motel anymore. Maybe you have again become the type of man who would whisk a woman away to Marthas Vineyard. Maybe you are experiencing some mien of second childhood. I dont know. But I do know you will NOT be experiencing a second childhood with me. I am not a child, Pat. Im a woman who loves h er current husband very much. My aim when I agreed to write you was never to allow you a second chance. My endeavor was not to allow you to reenter my life. I only wanted to give you a chance to say goodbye to resolve any unresolved issues. I want to be clear about this.Nikki

Functional Areas of Business Management Essay

AbstractA summary of the gross sales and marketing functional areas of an agreements structure as an examination of the boilersuit role and righteousness of the managers of each area. The sales managers primary goal is the development, implementation and evaluation of the strategic goals they desire to carry out with the sale presidential term to be up to(p) to meet the companys general goals. The marketing manager is responsible for indentifying of the market space with respect to the client, clients needs and the ability of the harvesting to meet the customers needs. merchandise managers are as well critical for conducting and evaluating the results of a SWOT analysis for the company. This information is vital to the development of corporate goals of the organization. operational Areas of Business ManagementThere are a number of functional groups that make up an organizations structure. Each of these business areas or ingrained organizations within the company provides a vital function or role to the overall success of the business. Some of these functional groups include finance, human resources, marketing, operations, sales, customer service, research and development to list a few standard functional business groups. The two functional areas of business that volition be reviewed and explored with respect to the mangers roles and associated responsibilities are the sales and marketing functional areas or organizations of a company.There is a strong correlation to these functions within a business organization. Many organizations may separate these two functional groups and others may closely integrate these to ensure the overall goals are achieved through the cross functional interaction of these resources. Sales commission can be most easily defined as planning, implementing, and controlling personal contact programs designed to achieve the sales and fit objectives of the firm (Gale, 2006,). As a sales manager the responsibility is instilled upon this person to be the leader of the sale team. As the leader you are responsible for the strategic planning and the overall process of setting the desired goals of the sales organization and it is a vital function of the sales manager.Goal setting is usually based on a companys overall sales objectives or targets (Gale, 2007). These goals may be cascaded down from senior management in a large organization or be developed through the overall profit and growth that the company is trying to achieve. As the manager of the sales organization it will be classic to canvass the ultimo history of the crops you are marketing as an initial assessment of the previous success. Once you have reviewed the revenue results you can compare these to the declare of the economy and determine if these results were typical of the results that other competitor companies achieved in a similar market under these conditions. Also the manager will have to examine the resources that are avail fitted and determine if these resources are similar to that of the resulting period being evaluated.The ability of the sales manager to set goals is strongly related to the desires to change past performanceby lifting all sales, high-margin sales, creating sales for new products, etc (Gale, 2007). Implementing the strategic plans are the next key functions of the sales manager. Depending upon the overall size of the company, size of the territory to mop up and the market to cover the sales part may be subdivided into regions. These regions would then have regional managers responsible for each region all working to achieve the overall sales goals and objectives developed within the organization. In developing the plans for implementing, the sales manager may have to answer questions such as how should a sales force be structured? How large a sales force is needed (Gale, 2006) etc.The sales manager will create strategies to be able to achieve the goals. The plans developed for implementat ion may also include such things as if training is required and if so then what training is required. They will also be concern with determining if there are requirements for new budgets or increases to old budgets to be able to implement the strategic plans and successfully execute the strategy. Marketing is the second functional area to be examined as a manager in the organizational structure. The overall function of the marketing department and the leaders of this organization can be viewed as the research group for determining the business needs of the client and indentifying the market place. (Moorman and Rust, 1999) Define the marketing managers as the liaison amongst the customer and the product.The marketing manager plays a vital role in understanding the client, understanding the marketing place the client represents and how the product stovepipe fits the overall needs of this market place. Once the marketing manager and the through the marketing team has identified the m arket space and the need for the product in it, they will then focus on creating a plan that best allows the company to successfully introduce or continue to succeed in selling the product in the identified market. The marketing manager will be responsible to set goals that will create a path for the identified product into the identified market and clients. The marketing manager will utilize the SWOT analysis to create the data that supports the need of a customer to buy and physical exercise a desired product.In the SWOT process the marketing manager will also typically identify if there is a market for a new product that the company may have interest in developing. This feedback will be relayed to the research and development organization to identify the economical carry on of such a new design. This cost to develop the desired product will be evaluated against the potential revenue that can generate. With this information the company will typically decide if the investment wi ll be made to develop the new product or if simply an old product can be modified to achieve the desired results to the client.Once a new product is developed or a current product is improved the marketing organization will determine the most beneficial way to introduce these changes to the desired client base. This method can vary from printed material in magazines, internet, client handouts or simply by the sale organization when directly dealing with the existing and new clients when they interact with them. There is significant correlation between the sale department and the marketing department in many industries today.Often it will be observed that the two roles of sales and marketing can be combined to a product marketing manager with sole responsibilities to a single product or product line. When the two functions are combined the manager will be responsible for the growth and success of the product. This manager will also be required to conduct the market research and devel op the most successful path to market for the product. Whether the sales and marketing managers are reviewed individually or as a combined role they both play vital roles in the overall developing, implementing and evaluating of the companies goals.ReferencesMoorman, C., and Rust, R.T.(1999). The role of marketing, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, pp. 180-197 (special Issue) Sales Management. Encyclopedia of Management. Ed. Marilyn M. Helms. 5th ed. Detroit Gale, 2006. 778-782. Sales Management. Encyclopedia of Small Business. 3rd ed. Vol. 2. Detroit Gale, 2007. 993-996

Eco-feminism & political and social movement Essay

Eco-feminism can be defined a political and social move custodyt which aims at combining feminism with environmentalism or, in separate words, to unite deep ecology with feminist concepts. Actually, I have chosen eco-feminism as it draws relations between women onerousness and degradation of nature. Environmental problems are of dandy concern now along with women equality. Nature is degrading and womens rights are still discriminating. Therefore, eco-feminism argues that there is a strong link between degradation of women and subjection of women.Eco-feminism also explores the relations between sexism, racism, domination of nature and social inequality. It is known that eco-feminism originates from union of ecological thinkers and feminist which believe that social mentality is to blame for oppression of women and domination of men. It is directly related to abuse of environment. Eco-feminism is claimed to combine bioregional democracy with eco-anarchism. Eco-feminism strongly pro claims the importance of interrelations between humans and animals, human and insects, and the earth.Central idea of the feminism is that men ownership has resulted in dominator culture promoting food export, tragedy of the commons, abusive land ethics, exploitation of people and over-gazing. Land and animals are viewed only as economic resources and eco-feminism aims at fighting such positioning. The patriarchal goal of eco-feminism is to re-define the views on productivity, attitudes of males and females towards nature and animals, as well as to prevent ill-using of animals and insects. The key figures in the development of eco-feminism are sing Adams, Helene Aylon, Judi Bari, Mary Daly, Monica Sjoo, etc.For example, Carol Adams is interested in relations between feminism and vegetarianism. In her works she wrote that women ahs to abuse their rights to provide men with the best food. Summing up, the primary goal of eco-feminism is to explain associations between degradation of w omen and degradation of nature.Works CitedEco-feminism. Available at http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ecofeminism. Accessed April 20, 2008 List of Feminists. Available at http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/List_of_feminists. Accessed April 20, 2008

Religion vs Ethics

clean-living Man and shameful di visionicipation A film in honour satis particularorys and governing return to religion-online honorable Man and vile clubhouse A Study in clean-livings and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the fore virtu tout ensembley philsophers and theologians of the ordinal vitamin C, Reinhold Niebuhr was for objet darty years a professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the originator of m some(prenominal) an(prenominal) sortics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and scrofulous company, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was too the world editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribners Sons. This material was prep ard for pietism Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. In this classic study, Niebuhr draws a sharp distinction among the moral and kind behavior of individuals versus cordial mat hematical meetings theme, racial, and stinting. He shows how this distinction then requires semi semipolitical policies which a rigorously individualistic ethic pass on inevitably watch a chance embarrassing. universeThe inferiority of the worship of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the bar of establishing a rational loving force which is multitude drastic enough to cope with the inbred impulses by which familiarity achieves its cohesion alone in part it is merely the revelation of a incorporated egocentrism, compounded of the selfish impulses of individuals, which achieve a to a greater extent vivid expression and a more cumulative rear when they atomic number 18 united in a plebeian impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly.Chapter 1 Man and monastic order The artwork of Living unneurotic History is a enormous tale of abortive efforts to ward the desired end of affectionate cohesion and referee in which failur e was usu every last(predicate)(a)y due either to the effort to eliminate the constituent of force all or to an undue reliance upon it. Chapter 2 The Rational Re cums of the Individual for genial Living The traditions and superstitions, which searched to the eighteenth century to be the precise root of in saveice, say aim been eliminated, without memo evolveing the constant growth of loving shabbiness.Yet the custody of learning move in their promise that more intelligence go forth solve the mixer problem. They may view demonstrate unfeignedities quite realistically still they cling to their hope that an adequate pedagogical technique bequeath in conclusion produce the affectionateised man and thus solve the problems of auberge. commit///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (1 of 4) 2/4/03 124352 PM Moral Man and baseborn hunting lodge A Study in morality and Politics Chapter 3 The ghostly Resources of the Individual for Social LivingIf the recogn ition of selfishness is requirement to the mitigation of its force and the declivity of its anti mixer consequences in society, religion should be a dominant allele ferment in the sociableisation of man for religion is fruitful of the warmness of contrition. Chapter 3 The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social Living If the recognition of selfishness is prerequisite to the mitigation of its force and the diminution of its anti amicable consequences in society, religion should be a dominant influence in the affableisation of man for religion is fruitful of the kernel of contrition.Chapter 4 The Morality of Nations A word of honor of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found on that pointin. Chapter 4 The Morality of Nations A discussion of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found therein. Chapter 5 The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypoc risies and dishonesties of the favor and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral attitudes of dominant and privileged groups argon characterised by common selfdeception and hypocrisy.Chapter 5 The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypocrisies and dishonesties of the privileged and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral attitudes of dominant and privileged groups ar characterised by universal selfdeception and hypocrisy. Chapter 6 The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletarian Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in honest terms, their about striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian companionable i reckonism which they betray.The industrial worker has curt confidence in the morality of men but this does non deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this knowledge of an industrial purification is vividly revealed in the fond and po litical attitudes of the modern proletarian class. These attitudes dumbfound achieved their file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (2 of 4) 2/4/03 124352 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics authoritative expression and translation in Marxian political philosophy.Chapter 6 The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletarian Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in ethical terms, their most striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian hearty idealism which they betray. The industrial worker has bantam confidence in the morality of men but this does not deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this development of an industrial civilisation is vividly revealed in the favorable and political attitudes of the modern proletarian class.These attitudes exact achieved their authoritative expression and definition in Marxian politi cal philosophy. Chapter 7 arbiter Through Revolution Difficult as the method of re genesis is for any western sandwich industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as im attainable. The forces which work out for concentration of wealthiness and place ar operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 7 Justice Through Revolution Difficult as the method of revolution is for any Western industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as impossible.The forces which make for concentration of wealth and source ar operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 8 Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just residual of the common wealth of society, but which has a quantify of security and thus does not feel itself solely disinherited, expresses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is sh ared with the m ore extremist Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal.Chapter 8 Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just relation of the common wealth of society, but which has a measure of security and therefore does not feel itself completely disinherited, expresses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is shared with the more revolutionary Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal. Chapter 9 The preservation of Moral Values in PoliticsIf obsession, self-assertion and date are regarded as permissible and essential instruments of genial redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial absolutism to be avoided? file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (3 of 4) 2/4/03 124352 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Po litics Chapter 9 The Preservation of Moral Values in Politics If coercion, self-assertion and conflict are regarded as permissible and necessary instruments of genial redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial tyranny to be avoided?Chapter 10 The Conflict Between Individual and Social Morality The conflict in the midst of morality and politics is do inevitable by the double focus of the moral spirit. One focus is in the inner tone of the individual, and the new(prenominal) in the necessities of mans cordial life. From the thought of society the highest moral ideal is justice. From the perspective of the individual the highest ideal is unselfishness. 31 file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&id=415. htm (4 of 4) 2/4/03 124352 PM Religion-Online religion-online. orgFull texts by recognized religious scholars More than 1,500 articles and chapters. Topics include Old and New testament, Theology, Ethics, History and Sociology of Religions, Comparative Religion, R eligious Communication, Pastoral Care, Counselling, Homiletics, Worship, Missions and Religious Education. site map (click on any subject) THE SITE THE BIBLE About Religion Online Copyright and Use A Note to Professors THEOLOGY Authority of the Bible Theology Old Testament Ethics New Testament Missions Comparative Religion Bible Commentary Religion and CultureHistory of Religious purview RELIGION & COMMUNICATION Communication Theory Communication in the Local Church Communication and global Policy Media Education THE LOCAL CHURCH The Local Congregation Pastoral Care and Counseling Homiletics The Art of Preaching Religious Education SEARCH Search Religion Online Church and Society Sociology of Religion Social Issues BROWSE Books Index By Author Index By Recommended Sites Category A member of the intelligence and Theology Web Ring Previous Next Random Site List Sites file///D/rb/index. htm 2/4/03 124355 PMRELIGION & SOCIETY Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for more years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many another(prenominal) classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was to a fault the trigger editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribners Sons. This material was hustling for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Introduction The thesis to be elaborated in these pages is that a sharp distinction must be draw among the moral and social behavior of individuals and of social groups, national, racial, and economical and that this distinction justifies and necessitates political policies w hich a purely individualistic ethic must eer find embarrassing.The title Moral Man and Immoral Society suggests the intended distinction too unqualifiedly, but it is neverthe slight a f direct indication of the argument to which the next pages are devoted. Individual men may be moral in the sense that they are able to take interests other than their possess in determining problems of conduct, and are capable, on occasion, of preferring the advantages of others to their hold. They are endowed by constitution with a measure of sympathy and consideration for their kind, the breadth of which may be broad by an astute social pedagogy.Their rational faculty prompts them to a sense of justice which studyal issue may refine and purge of egoistic elements until they are able to view a social situation, in which their own interests are involved, with a fair measure of objectivity. But all these achievements are more difficult, if not impossible, for forgiving being societies and social groups. In e actually benignant group there is less reason to guide and to check impulse, less condenser for self-transcendence, less ability to comprehend the ineluctably of others and therefore more unrestrained egoism than the individuals, who compose the group, reveal in their personal transactionhips.The inferiority of the morality of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the difficulty of establishing a rational social force which is creatorful enough to cope with the natural impulses by which society achieves its cohesion but in part it is merely the revelation of a embodied egoism, compounded of the egoistic impulses of individuals, which achieve a more vivid expression and a more cumulative effect when they are united in a common impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly. file///D/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem=1=415. htm (1 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics Inasfar as this treatise has a polemic interest it is directed against the moralists twain religious and secular, who imagine that the egoism of individuals is being progressively checked by the development of rationality or the growth of a religiously inspired thanksgiving and that cypher but the continuance of this process is necessary to establish social harmony between all the charitable societies and collectives.Social analyses and prophecies made by moralists, sociologists and educators upon the arse of these assumptions mite to a very considerable moral and political discombobulation in our day. They completely disregard the political necessities in the struggle for justice in benevolent society by flunk to recognise those elements in mans collective behavior which belong to the order of nature and spate never be brought completely to a lower place the dominion of reason or conscience. They do not recognise that when collective advocatefulness, whether in the form of imperialism or class domination, exploits weakness, it plunder never be dislodged unless world-beaterfulness is raised against it.If conscience and reason crapper be insinuated into the resulting struggle they can nevertheless qualify but not get rid of it. The most persistent fracture of modern educators and moralists is the assumption that our social difficulties are due to the failure of the social sciences to keep pace with the physical sciences which break created our technological civilisation. The invariable implication of this assumption is that, with a little more time, a little more adequate moral and social pedagogy and a generally higher development of compassionate intelligence, our social problems will approach solution. It is, declares Professor John Dewey, our human intelligence and our human courage which is on trial it is incredible that men who nurse brought the technique of physical discovery, invention and use to such a pitch of perfection will abdicate in the face of the infinitely more important human problem. What stands in the way (of a planned economy) is a lot of outworn traditions, moth-eaten slogans and catch spoken communication that do substitute work for thought, as well as our entrenched predatory self-interest. We shall only make a real fount in intelligent thought when we cease mouthing platitudes.Just as soon as we begin to use the cognition and skills we cod, to simpleness social consequences in the interest of a shared, abundant and secured life, we shall cease to complain of the backwardness of our social knowledge. We shall then take the road which leads to the assured building up of social science just as men built up physical science when they actively used techniques and tools and numbers in physical experiment. (John Dewey, Philosophy and Civilization New York Minton, Balch, p. 329. In spite of Professor Deweys enceinte interest in and appreciation of the modern social problem there is very little clarity in this kingdomment. The real suffer of social inertia, our predatory self-interest, is mentioned only in passing without influencing his reasoning, and with no indication that he understands how practically social conservatism is due to the economic interests of the owning classes. On the whole, social conservatism is ascribed to ignorance, a point of view which states only part of the truth and reveals the natural bias of the educator.The suggestion that we will only make a beginning in intelligent thought when we cease mouthing platitudes, is itself so platitudinous that it rather betrays the confusion of an analyst who has no recognize counsels about the way to over fuck off social inertia. The idea that we cannot be socially intelligent until we begin experimentation in social problems in the way that the physical scientists experimented fails to take account of an important difference between the physical file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=1=415. tm (2 of 8) 2/4/0 3 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics and the social sciences. The physical sciences gained their freedom when they overcame the traditionalism base on ignorance, but the traditionalism which the social sciences face is based upon the economic interest of the dominant social classes who are trying to maintain their special privileges in society. Nor can the difference between the very character of social and physical sciences be overlooked.Complete rational objectivity in a social situation is impossible. The very social scientists who are so anxious to offer our generation counsels of salvation and are disappointed that an ignorant and slothful people are so slow to accommodate their wisdom, betray middle-class prejudices in almost everything they write. Since reason is always, to some stratum, the servant of interest in a social situation, social injustice cannot be determined by moral and rational suasion alone, as the educator and social sc ientist usually be populateves.Conflict is inevitable, and in this conflict authority must be altercated by power. That fact is not recognized by most of the educators, and only very grudgingly admitted by most of the social scientists. If social conflict be a part of the process of gaining social justice, the idea of most of Professor Neweys disciples that our salvation depends upon the development of experimental procedures? ( Cf. inter alia, John Childs, Education and the Philosophy of Experimentalism, p. 37. in social life, commensurate with the experimentalism of the physical sciences, does not have quite the plausibility which they attribute to it. Contending factions in a social struggle require morale and morale is created by the right dogmas, symbols and emotionally potent oversimplifications. These are at least as necessary as the scientific spirit of tentativity. No class of industrial workers will ever win freedom from the dominant classes if they give themselves comple tely to the experimental techniques of the modern educators.They will have to believe rather more firmly in the justice and in the probable triumph of their cause, than any impartial science would give them the right to believe, if they are to have enough energy to contest the power of the strong. They may be very scientific in projecting their social goal and in choosing the most effective instruments for its attainment, but a motive force will be required to nerve them for their travail which is not easily derived from the cool objectivity of science. juvenile educators are, like rationalists of all the ages, too enamored of the belong of reason in life.The world of history, particularly in mans collective behavior, will never be conquered by reason, unless reason uses tools, and is itself driven by forces which are not rational. The sociologists as a class, understand the modern social problem even less than the educators. They usually interpret social conflict as the result o f a clash between different kinds of behavior patterns, which can be eliminated if the contending parties will only allow the social scientist to furnish them with a unseasoned and more perfect pattern which will do justice to the needs of both parties.With the educators they regard ignorance rather than self-interest as the cause of conflict. Apparently, declares Kimball Young, the only way in which collective conflicts, as well as individual conflicts, can be successfully and hygienically solved is by securing a redirection of behavior toward a more feasible environmental objective. This can be accomplished most successfully by the rational reconditioning of attitudes on a higher neuropsychic or intellectual symbolic matted to the facts of science, preferably through a free file///D/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (3 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics discussion with a minimum of propaganda. This is not an lightsome road to mental and social saneness but it appears to be the only one which arrives at the goal. ( Kimball Young, Social Attitudes p. 72) Here a technique which workings very well in individual relations, and in received types of social conflict due to differences in culture, is made a general panacea. How is it to solve the problem between Eng institute and India?Through the Round-Table Conference? But how frequently(prenominal) would England have granted India at the conference if a non-co-operation campaign, a type of conflict, had not forced the trim down? A favorite counsel of the social scientists is that of accommodation. If two parties are in a conflict, let them, by conferring together, moderate their demands and arrive at a modus vivendi. This is, among others, the advice of Professor Hornell Hart. (Hornell Hart, The Science of Social Relations. ) Undoubtedly there are innumerable conflicts which must be resolved in this fashion.But will a disinherited g roup, such as the Negroes for instance, ever win full justice in society in this fashion? Will not even its most minimum demands seem exorbitant to the dominant whites, among whom only a very miniature minority will regard the inter-racial problem from the perspective of objective justice? Or how are the industrial workers to follow Professor Harts advice in dealing with industrial owners, when the owners possess so much power that they can win the debate with the workers, no social occasion how unconvincing their arguments ?Only a very few sociologists seem to have learned that an adjustment of a social conflict, caused by the disproportion of power in society, will but result in justice as long as the disproportion of power remains. Some clock the sociologists are so completely oblivious to the real facts of an industrial civilisation that, as Floyd Allport for instance, they can suggest that the unrest of industrial workers is due not to economic injustice but to a sense of in feriority which will be overcome just as soon as benevolent social psychologists are able to get word the workers that no one is charging them with inferiority except themselves. ( FIoyd Allport, Social Psychology, pp. 14-17. ) These omniscient social scientists will also get wind the owners that interests and profits must be seasoned by regard for the worker. Thus the socialisation of individual fancy in industry will obviate the necessity of socialistic control. Most of the social scientists are such unqualified rationalists that they seem to imagine that men of power will immediately check their exactions and pretensions in society, as soon as they have been apprised by the social scientists that their actions and attitudes are anti-social.Professor Clarence Marsh Case, in an excellent analytic thinking of the social problem, places his confidence in a reorganisation of valuesin which, among other things, industrial leadership must be made to see that despotically control led industry in a society that professes democracy as an article of faith is an anachronism that cannot endure. ( Clarence Marsh Case, Social Process and Human Progress, p. 233. ) It may be that dictatorship cannot endure but it will not abdicate merely because the despots have discovered it to be anachronistic.Sir Arthur Salter, to note a brilliant economist among the social scientists, finishes his penetrating analysis of the distempers of our civilisation by expressing the usual hope that a higher intelligence or a sincerer morality will prevent the governments of the future from perpetrating the mistakes of the past. His own analysis proves conclu-sively that the failure of governments is due to the pressure of economic interest upon them rather than to the limited capacities of uman wisdom. In his own words file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (4 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics government is failing above all because it has set out enmeshed in the task of giving discretionary, particularly preferential, privileges to competitive industry. (Sir Arthur Salter, Recovery, p. 41) In spite of this analysis Sir Arthur expects the governments to redeem our civilisation by becoming more socially minded and he thinks that one method which will help them to do so is to draw into the service of the public the great private institutions which represent the organised activities of the country, chambers of commerce, banking institutions, industrial and labor organisations. His entire hope for recovery rests upon the surmisal of development a degree of economic disinterestedness among men of power which the entire history of mankind proves them unequal to(p) of acquiring.It is rather discouraging to find such naive confidence in the moral capacities of collective man, among men who make it their backup to study collective human behavior. Even when, as Professor Howard Odum, the y are prepared to admit that conflict will be necessary as long as unfairness in the distribution of the rewards of labor exists, they put their hope in the future. They regard social conflict as only an expedient of the moment until broader principles of education and cooperation can be established. (Howard W.Odum, Mans Quest for Social Guidance, p. 477. ) Anarchism, with an uncoerced and voluntary justice, seems to be either an translucent or implicit social goal of every second social scientist. Modern religious idealists usually follow in the wake of social scientists in advocating compromise and accommodation as the way to social justice. Many leaders of the church like to insist that it is not their business to poor boy the cause of either labor or capital, but only to admonish both sides to a spirit of fairness and accommodation. Between the far-visioned capitalism of Owen Young and the hard-headed socialism of Ramsay MacDonald, declares Doctor Justin Wroe Nixon, there is probably no unpassable gulf. The progress of mankind . . . depends upon succeeding(a) the MacDonalds and Youngs into those areas. (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith p. 294) Unfortunately, since those lines were written the socialism of MacDonald has been revealed as not particularly hard-headed, and the depression has shown how little difference there really is between Mr.Youngs new capitalism and the senior(a) and less suave types of capitalism. What is lacking among all these moralists, whether re1igious or rational, is an understanding of the brutal character of the behavior of all human collectives, and the power of self-interest and collective egoism in all intergroup relations. Failure to recognise the stiff-necked resistance of group egoism to all moral and inclusive social objectives inevitably involves them in unrealistic and confused political thought.They regard social conflict either as an impossible method of achieving chastely ap- turn up ends or as a momentary expedient which a more perfect education or a purer religion will make unnecessary. They do not see that the limitations of the human imagination, the easy subservience of reason to prejudice and passion, and the effect persistence of irrational egoism, particularly in group behavior, make social conflict an inevitability in human history, probably to its very end. The amatory overestimate of human virtue and moral capacity, current in our modern middlefile///D/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (5 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics class culture, does not always result in an unrealistic appraisal of present social facts. Contemporary social situations are frequently appraised quite realistically, but the hope is expressed that a new pedagogy or a revival of religion will make conflict unnecessary in the future. Nevertheless a considerable portion of middle-class culture remains quite unrealisti c in its analysis of the contemporary situation.It assumes that evidences of a growing brotherliness between classes and nations are apparent in the present moment. It gives such arrangements as the partnership of Nations, such ventures as the Kellogg Pact and such schemes as company industrial unions, a connotation of moral and social achievement which the total facts completely belie. There must, declares Professor George Stratton, a social psychologist, always be a continuing and widening progress. But our present time seems to promise understandably the close of an old epoch in world relations and the opening of a new.Under the devout teaching of the War, most of the nations have made political commitments which are of signal promise for international discipline and for still further and more effective governmental acts. (George M. Stratton, Social Psychology and International Conduct, pp. 355-361. ) This glorification of the League of Nations as a symbol of a new epoch in int ernational relations has been very general, and frequently very unqualified, in the Christian churches, where liberal Christianity has given itself to the illusion that all social relations are being brought progressively under the law of Christ. William Adams Brown speaks for the whole liberal Christian viewpoint when he declares From many different centres and in many different forms the crusade for a unified and affectionate society is being carried on. The ideal of the League of Nations in which all civilised people shall be be and in which they shall cooperate with one another in fighting common enemies like war and affection is winning recognition in circles which have hitherto been little suspected of idealism. . . In relations between races, in strife between capital and labor, in our attitudes toward the weaker and more dependent members of society we are developing a social conscience, and situations which would have been accepted a generation ago as a matter of course are felt as an intolerable scandal. (William Adams Brown, Pathways to Certainty, p. 246. ) Another theologian and pastor, Justin Wroe Nixon, thinks that another reason for accept in the growth of social statesmanship on the part of business leaders is based upon their watch as trustees in various philanthropic and educational enterprises. (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith, p. 291) This judgment reveals the moral confusion of liberal Christianity with perfect clarity. Teachers of morals who do not see the difference between the problem of benignity inside the limits of an accepted social system and the problem of justice between economic groups, holding cranky power within modern industrial society, have simply not faced the most transparent differences between the morals of groups and those of individuals. The suggestion that the fight against disease is in the same category with the fight against war reveals the same confusion.Our contemporary culture fails to r ealise the power, extent and persistence of group egoism in human relations. It may be possible, though it is never easy, to establish just relations between individuals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation. In intergroup relations this is practically an impossibility. The relations between groups must therefore always be predominantly political rather than ethical, that is, they will be determined by the proportion of power which each group possesses at least as much as by any rational and moral appraisal of the comparative needs and claims of each group.The compulsive factors, in file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (6 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics distinction to the more purely moral and rational factors, in political relations can never be sagaciously differentiated and defined. It is not possible to estimate exactly how much a party to a social conflict is i nfluenced by a rational argument or by the threat of force.It is impossible, for instance, to know what proportion of a privileged class accepts higher inheritance taxes because it believes that such taxes are good social policy and what proportion submits merely because the power of the state supports the taxation policy. Since political conflict, at least in times when controversies have not reached the point of crisis, is carried on by the threat, rather than the actual use, of force, it is always easy for the fooling or superficial ob respondr to overestimate the moral and rational factors, and to remain oblivious to the secret types of coercion and force which are used in the conflict.Whatever gain in social intelligence and moral goodwill may be achieved in human history, may serve to mitigate the brutalities of social conflict, but they cannot abolish the conflict itself. That could be accomplished only if human groups, whether racial, national or economic, could achieve a degree of reason and sympathy which would permit them to see and to understand the interests of others as vividly as they understand their own, and a moral goodwill which would prompt them to affirm the rights of others as vigorously as they affirm their own.Given the inevitable limitations of human nature and the limits of the human imagination and intelligence, this is an ideal which individuals may approximate but which is beyond the capacities of human societies. Educators who accentuate the pliability of human nature, social and psychological scientists who dream of socialising man and religious idealists who strive to increase the sense of moral responsibility, can serve a very useful function in society in humanising individuals within an established social system and in purging the relations of individuals of as much egoism as possible.In dealing with the problems and necessities of radical social change they are almost invariably misidentify in their counsels because th ey are not conscious of the limitations in human nature which finally frustrate their efforts. The following pages are devoted to the task of analysing the moral resources and limitations of human nature, of tracing their consequences and cumulative effect in the life of human groups and of weighing political strategies in the light of the ascertained facts. The ultimate purpose of this task is to find political methods which will offer the most promise of achieving an ethical social goal for society.Such methods must always be judged by two criteria 1. Do they do justice to the moral resources and possibilities in human nature and provide for the exploitation of every latent moral capacity in man? 2. Do they take account of the limitations of human nature, particularly those which manifest themselves in mans collective behavior? So persistent are the moralistic illusions about politics in the middle-class world, that any emphasis upon the second question will probably impress the a verage reader as unduly cynical. Social viewpoints and analyses are relative to the temper of the age which gives them birth.In America our contemporary culture is still pretty firmly enmeshed in the illusions and sentimentalities of the develop of Reason. A social analysis which is written, at least partially, from the perspective of a disillusioned generation will seem to be almost pure cynicism from the perspective of those who will stand in the credo of the ninteenth century. file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (7 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics 0 file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. tm (8 of 8) 2/4/03 124358 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuh r was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the founding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribners Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Chapter 1 Man and Society The Art of Living Together Though human society has roots which lie deeper in history than the beginning of human life, men have made relatively but little progress in solving the problem of their aggregate existence. Each century originates a new complexity and each new generation faces a new vexation in it. For all the enturies of experience, men have not yet learned how to live together without compounding their vices and covering each other with ball up and with blood. The s ociety in which each man lives is at once the basis for, and the nemesis of, that fullness of life which each man seeks. However much human ingenuity may increase the treasures which nature provides for the cheer of human needs, they can never be sufficient to satisfy all human wants for man, unlike other creatures, is gifted and cursed with an imagination which extends his appetites beyond the requirements of subsistence.Human society will never escape the problem of the true distribution of the physical and cultural goods which provide for the preservation and fulfillment of human life. Unfortunately the conquest of nature, and the consequent increase in natures beneficences to man, have not eased, but rather accentuated, the problem of justice. The same technology, which drew the fangs of natures malevolence of man, also created a society in which the intensity and extent of social cohesion has been greatly increase, and in which power is so unevenly distributed, that justice has become a more difficult achievement.Perhaps it is mans sorry fate, torment from ills which have their source in the inadequacies of both nature and human society, that the tools by which he eliminates the former should become the means of increasing the latter. That, at least, has been his fate up to the present hour and it may be that there will be no salvation for the human spirit from the more and more painful burdens of social injustice until the ominous tendency in human history has resulted in perfect tragedy. file///D/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (1 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics Human nature is not wanting in certain endowments for the solution of the problem of human society. Man is endowed by nature with organic relations to his fellowmen and natural impulse prompts him to consider the needs of others even when they compete with his own. With the higher mammals man shares concern for his offspring and the long infancy of the child created he basis for an organic social group in the earliest compass point of human history. Gradually intelligence, imagination, and the necessities of social conflict increased the size of this group. Natural impulse was refined and extended until a less obvious type of consanguinity than an immediate family relationship could be made the basis of social solidarity. Since those early days the units of human cooperation have constantly grown in size, and the areas of significant relationships between the units have likewise increased.Nevertheless conflict between the national units remains as a permanent rather than a passing characteristic of their relations to each other and each national unit finds it more and more difficult to maintain either peace or justice within its common life. While it is possible for intelligence to increase the range of benevolent impulse, and thus prompt a human being to consider the needs and rights of other than those to whom he is bound by organic and physical relationship, there are explicit limits in the capacity of ordinary mortals which makes it impossible for them to grant to others what they claim for themselves.Though educators ever since the eighteenth century have given themselves to the fond illusion that justice through voluntary co-operation waited only upon a more universal or a more adequate educational enterprise, there is good reason to believe that the sentiments of bounty and social goodwill will never be so pure or powerful, and the rational capacity to consider the rights and needs of others in fair competition with our own will never be so fully actual as to create the possibility for the anarchistic millennium which is the social utopia, either explicit or implicit, of all intellectual or religious moralists.All social co-operation on a larger casing than the most intimate social group requires a measure of coercion. While no state can maintain its uni ty purely by coercion neither can it preserve itself without coercion. Where the factor of shared consent is strongly developed, and where standardised and approximately fair methods of adjudicating and resolving conflicting interests within an organised group have been established, the imperious factor in social life is frequently covert, and becomes apparent only in moments of crisis and in the groups policy toward recalcitrant individuals.Yet it is never absent. Divergence of interest, based upon geographic and functional differences within a society, is bound to create different social philosophies and political attitudes which goodwill and intelligence may partly, but never completely, harmonise. Ultimately, unity within an organised social group, or within a federation of such groups, is created by the ability of a dominant group to impose its will.Politics will to the end of history,be an area where conscience and power meet, where the ethical and coercive factors of human life will interpenetrate and work out their tentative and sickish compromises. The democratic method of resolving social conflict, which some romanticists hail as a triumph of the ethical over the coercive factor, is really much more coercive than at first seems apparent. file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (2 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe majority has its way, not because the minority believes that the majority is right (few minorities are voluntary to grant the majority the moral prestige of such a concession), but because the votes of the majority are a symbol of its social strength. Whenever a minority believes that it has some strategic advantage which outweighs the power of numbers, and whenever it is sufficiently bearing upon its ends, or desperate enough about its position in society, it refuses to accept the dictates of the majority.Military and economic overlords and revolutiona ry zealots have been traditionally contemptuous of the will of majorities. Recently Trotsky advised the German communists not to be dismayed by the greater voting strength of the fascists since in the inevitable revolution the power of industrial workers, in disturb of the nations industrial process, would be found much more significant than the social power of clerks and other midget bourgeoisie who comprised the fascist movement. There are, no doubt, rational and ethical factors in the democratic process.Contending social forces presumably use the forum rather than the battleground to arbitrate their differences in the democratic method, and thus differences are resolved by moral suasion and a rational adjustment of rights to rights. If political issues were really abstract questions of social policy upon which unbiased citizens were asked to commit themselves, the business of voting and the debate which precedes the election might actually be regarded as an educational program me in which a social group discovers its common mind.But the fact is that political opinions are inevitably rooted in economic interests of some kind or other, and only comparatively few citizens can view a problem of social policy without regard to their interest. Conflicting interests therefore can never be completely resolved and minorities will yield only because the majority has come into control of the police power of the state and may, if the occasion arises, augment that power by its own military strength.Should a minority regard its own strength, whether economic or martial, as strong enough to challenge the ,power of the majority, it may attempt to wrest control of the state apparatus from the majority, as in the case of the fascist movement in Italy. sometimes it will resort to armed conflict, even if the prospects of victory are no(prenominal) too bright, as in the instance of the American Civil War, in which the Southern planting interests, outvoted by a combination of Eastern industrialists and Western agrarians, resolved to protect their peculiar interests and privileges by a forceful dissolution of the national union.The coercive factor is, in other words, always present in politics. If economic interests do not conflict too sharply, if the spirit of accommodation partially resolves them, and if the democratic process has achieved moral prestige and historic dignity, the coercive factor in politics may become too covert to be visible to the casual observer. Nevertheless, only a romanticist of the purest water could maintain that a national group ever arrives at a common mind or becomes conscious of a general will without the use of either force or the threat of force.This is particularly true of nations, but it is also true, though in a slighter degree, of other social groups. Even religious communities, if they are sufficiently large, and if they deal with issues regarded as vital by their members, resort to coercion to preserve their unity. Religious organisations have usually availed themselves of a covert type of coercion (excommunication and the interdict) or they have called upon the police power of the state. file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (3 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe limitations of the human mind and imagination, the inability of human beings to transcend their own interests sufficiently to guess the interests of their fellowmen as clearly as they do their own makes force an inevitable part of the process of social cohesion. But the same force which guarantees peace also makes for injustice. Power, said Henry Adams, is toxicant and it is a poison which blinds the eyes of moral insight and lames the will of moral purpose. The individual or the group which organises any society, besides social its intentions or pretensions, arrogates an inordinate portion of social privilege to itself.The two most obvious types of power are the military and the economic, though in naive society the power of the priest, partly because he dispenses sorcerous benefits and partly because he establishes public order by methods less arduous than those of the soldier, vies with that of the soldier and the landlord. The chief difference between the agrarian civilisations, which lasted from the rise of ancient Babylon and Egypt to the fall of European feudalism, and the commercial and industrial civilisations of today is that in the former the military power is primary, and in the latter it has become secondary, to economic power.In agrarian civilisations the soldier becomes the landlord. In more primitive periods he may claim the land by his own military prowess. In later periods a grateful sovereign bestowed land upon the soldiers who defended his realm and consolidated his dominion. The soldier thus gained the economic security and the social prestige which could be exploited in further martial service to his so vereign. The business man and industrial overlord are gradually usurping the position of eminence and privilege once held by the soldier and the priest.In most European nations their ascendancy over the landed aristocrat of military traditions is not as complete as in America, which has no feudal traditions. In present-day Japan the military circle is still so powerful that it threatens to destroy the rising power of the commercial groups. On the pre-eminence of economic power in an industrial civilisation and its ability to make the military power its tool we shall have more to say later. Our interest at the moment is to record that any kind of significant social power develops social inequality.Even if history is viewed from other than equalitarian perspectives, and it is granted that differentials in economic rewards are morally reassert and socially useful, it is impossible to justify the degree of inequality which complex societies inevitably create by the increased centralis ation of power which develops with more elaborate civilisations. The literature of all ages is filled with rational and moral justifications of these inequalities, but most of them are specious. If superior abilities and services to society deserve special rewards it may be regarded as axiomatic that the rewards are always higher than the services warrant.No impartial society determines the rewards. The men of power who control society grant these perquisites to themselves. Whenever special ability is not associated with power, as in the case of the modern maestro man, his excess of income over the average is ridiculously low in comparison with that of the economic overlords, who are the real centres of power in an industrial society. Most rational and social justifications of unequal privilege are clearly afterthoughts. The facts are created by the disproportion of power which exists in a given social system.The justifications are usually impose by the desire of the men of power to hide the nakedness of their greed, and by the inclination of society itself to greater omentum the brutal facts of human life from itself. This is a rather pathetic but understandable inclination since the facts of mans collective life easily rob the average individual of confidence in the human enterprise. The inevitable hypocrisy, which is associated with all of the collective activities of the human race, springs chiefly from this file///D/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (4 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics source that individuals have a moral code which makes the actions of collective man an outrage to their conscience. They therefore invent romantic and moral interpretations of the real facts, preferring to obscure rather than reveal the true character of their collective behavior Sometimes they are as anxious to offer moral justifications for the brutalities from which they suffer as for those w hich they commit.The fact that the hypocrisy of mans group behavior, about which we shall have much more to say later, expresses itself not only in terms of selfjustification but in terms of moral justification of human behavior in general, symbolises one of the tragedies of the human spirit its inability to conform its collective life to its individual ideals. As individuals, men believe that they ought to love and serve each other and establish justice between each other. As racial, economic and national groups they take for themselves, whatever their power can command.The disproportion of power in a complex society which began with the transmutation of the hoidenish to the agrarian economy, and which destroyed the simple equalitarianism and communism of the hunting and nomadic social organisation, has perpetuated social injustice in every form through all the ages. Types of power have changed, and gradations of social inequality have varied, but the essential facts have remained unchanged. In Egypt the land was divided into three parts, respectively claimed by the king, the soldiers and the priests. The common people were landless.In Peru, where a rather remarkable despotic communism developed, the king owned all the land but gave the use of one third gear to the people, another third to the priests and kept one third for himself and his nobles. unnecessary to say, the commoners were expected to till not only their third but the other two thirds of the lands. In China, where the emperor moth maintained the right of eminent domain for many centuries, defeating the experiment in feudalism in the third century A. D. , and giving each family inalienable rights in the soil which nominally belonged to him, there has probably been less inequality than in any other ancient empire.Nevertheless thraldom persisted until a very recent day. In Japan the emperor gave the land to feudal princes, who again sublet it to the inferior nobility. The power of the feudal cla ns, originating in martial prowess and perpetuated through land ownership, has remained practically unbroken to this day, though the imperial power was plainly restored in the latter part of the last century, and growing industry has developed a class of industrial overlords who were partly drawn from the landed aristocracy.In Rome the absolute property rights of the pater familias of the patrician class gave him power which fixed him on top of the social pyramid. All other classes, beginning with his own women and children, then the plebeians and finally the slaves, took their places in the various lower mental testgs of the social ladder. The efforts of the Gracchi to destroy the ever growing inequality, which resulted from power breeding more power, proved abortive, as did the land reforms of Solon and Lycurgus in Greece.Military conquest gave the owners of the Roman latifundia hundreds of slaves by the labor of which they reduced the miserable freeholders to penury. Thus the decay of the Roman Empire was prepared for a state which has only lords and slaves lacks the social cementum to preserve it from internal disintegration and the military force to protect it from external aggression. file///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (5 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PMMoral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics All through history one may observe the tendency of power to destroy its very raison detre. It is suffered because it achieves internal unity and creates external defenses for the nation. But it grows to such proportions that it destroys the social peace of the state by the animosities which its exactions arouse, and it enervates the sentiment of patriotism by robbing the common man of the basic privileges which might bind him to his nation.The words attributed by Plutarch to Tiberius Gracchus reveal the hollowness of the pretensions by which the powerful classes enlist their slaves in the defense of their dominions The wild beasts in Italy had at least their lairs, dens and caves whereto they might retreat whereas the men who fought and died for that land had nothing in it save air and light, but were forced to wander to and fro with their wives and children, without resting place or house wherein they might lodge. The poor class go to war, to fight and to die for the delights, riches and superfluities of others. Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, see Tiberius Gracchus, Loeb Classical Library, Vol. X). In the long run these pretensions are revealed and the sentiment of patriotism is throttled in the breasts of the disinherited. The privileged groups who are outraged by the want of patriotism among modern proletarians could learn the cause of proletarian internationalism by a little study of history. It is absurd, says Diodorus Siculus, harangue of Egypt, to entrust the defence of a country to people who own nothing in it,(Quoted by C. J. M. Letourneau, spot Its Origin and Development. p. 77) a reflection which has applicability to other ages and other nations than his own. Russian communists of pure water stream their scorn upon European socialists, among whom patriotism outweighed class loyalty in the World War. But there is a very simple explanation for the nationalism of European socialists. They were not as completely, or at least not as obviously, disinherited as their Russian comrades. The history of slavery in all ancient civilisations offers an interesting illustration of the development of social injustice with the growing size and complexity of the social unit.In primitive tribal organisation rights are essentially equal within the group, and no rights, or only very minimum rights are recognised outside of the group. The jaileds of war are killed. With the growth of agriculture the labor of captives becomes useful, and they are enslaved rather than destroyed. Since rightless individuals are introduced into the intimate life of the group, equality of rights di sappears and the inequality remains even after the slaves are no longer regarded as enemies and have become completely organic to the life of the group.The principle of slavery once established, is enlarged to include debt slaves, victims of the growing property system. The membership of the debt slaves in the original community at first guarantees them rights which the captive slaves do not enjoy. But the years gradually wipe out these distinctions and the captive slaves are finally raised to the status of debtor slaves. Thus the more humane attitudes which men exercise within their social groups gains a slight victory over the more brutal attitudes towards individuals in other groups.But the victory is insignificant in comparison with the previous introduction of the morals of inter group relations into the intimate life of the group by the very establishment of slavery. Barbarism knows little or nothing of class distinctions. These are created and more and more highly elaborated by civilisation. The social impulses, with which men are endowed by nature are not powerful enough, even when they are extended by a growing intelligence, to apply with equal force ile///D/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=2=415. htm (6 of 11) 2/4/03 124405 PM Moral Man and Immoral Society A Study in Ethics and Politics toward all members of a large community. The distinction between slave and freeman is only one of the many social gradations which higher societies develop. They are determined in every case by the disproportion of power, military and economic, which develops in the more complex civilisations and in the larger social units.A growing social intelligence may be affronted by them and may protest against them, but it changes them only slightly. Neither the prophets of Israel nor the social idealists of Egypt and Babylon, who protested against social injustice, could make their vision of a just society effective. The man of power, though humane impulse may awaken in him , always remains something of the beast of prey. He may be free within his family, and just within the confines of the group which shares his power and privilege.With only rare exceptions, his highest moral attitude toward members of other groups is one of hawkish sportsmanship toward those who equal his power and challenge it, and one of philanthropic generosity toward those who possess less power and privilege. His kindness is a perfect illustration of the curious compound of the brutal and the moral which we find in all human behavior for his generosity is at once a display of his power and an expression of his pity. His generous impulses freeze within him if his power is challenged or his generosities are accepted without grateful humility.If individual men of power should achieve more ethical attitudes than the one described, it remains nevertheless typical for them as a class and is their practically unvarying attitude when they express themselves not as individuals but as a group. The rise of modern democracy, beginning with the Eighteenth Century, is sometimes supposed to have substituted the consent of the governed for the power of royal families and sorry classes as the cohesive force of national society. This judgment is partly true but not nearly as true as the uncritical devotees of modern democracy assume.The doctrine that government exists by the consent of the governed, and the democratic technique by which the suffrage of the governed determines the policy of the state, may actually reduce the coercive factor in national life, and provide for peaceful and gradual methods of resolving conflicting social interests and changing political institutions. But the creeds and institutions of democracy have never become fully divorced from the special interests of the commercial classes who conceived and developed them.It was their interest to destroy political restraint upon economic activity, and they therefore weakened the authority of the state and made it more pliant to their needs. With the increased centralisation of economic power in the period of modern industrialism, this development merely means that society as such does not control economic power as much as social well-being requires and that the economic, rather than the political and military, power has become the significant coercive force of modern society. Either it defies the authority of the state or it bends the institutions of the state to its own purposes.Political power has been made responsible, but economic power has become irresponsible in society. The net result is that political power has been made more responsible to economic power. It is, in other words, again the man of power or the dominant class which binds society together, regulates its processes, always paying itself inordinate rewards for its labors. The difference is that